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Related Concept Videos

Imaging Studies for Cardiovascular System I:Echocardiography01:17

Imaging Studies for Cardiovascular System I:Echocardiography

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Cardiac imaging studies encompass a wide range of noninvasive and minimally invasive techniques designed to visualize the heart's structure and function in detail. One such technique is echocardiography, which uses high-frequency ultrasound waves to produce detailed images of the heart, known as echocardiograms.
Indications: Echocardiography is utilized to diagnose heart failure, valve disorders, and myocardial infarction. It also assesses cardiac structures' size, shape, and motion,...
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Cardiac Output and Stroke Volume01:11

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Cardiac output (CO) is an integral aspect of human physiology, reflecting the heart's efficiency and responsiveness to the body's needs. It represents the volume of blood that the left or right ventricle ejects into the aorta or pulmonary trunk each minute. The CO is calculated by multiplying the heart rate (HR)—the number of heartbeats per minute—by the stroke volume (SV)—the amount of blood pumped out with each heartbeat.
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Echocardiography plays a role in assessing cardiac health and detecting heart conditions, with various types providing critical insights for diagnosis and treatment.
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Cardiac Output II: Effect of Stroke Volume on Cardiac Output01:22

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Cardiac output (CO), the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute, is a parameter in cardiovascular physiology determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume, the amount of blood pushed from one of the ventricles per heartbeat, is influenced by preload, afterload, and contractility.
Preload
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 2, 2026

Evaluation of Left Ventricular Structure and Function using 3D Echocardiography
06:34

Evaluation of Left Ventricular Structure and Function using 3D Echocardiography

Published on: October 28, 2020

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Cardiac output calculation and three-dimensional echocardiography.

Mario Montealegre-Gallegos1, Feroze Mahmood2, Khurram Owais2

  • 1Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; Department of Anesthesia, Hospital México de la Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.

Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia
|March 5, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Three-dimensional transesophageal echocardiography (3D TEE) provides a more accurate measurement of left ventricular outflow tract area than 2D TEE, leading to a more precise cardiac output calculation.

Keywords:
cardiac outputleft ventricular outflow tract, stroke volume, transesophageal echocardiography, 2D vs 3D

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Area of Science:

  • Cardiovascular imaging
  • Echocardiography
  • Hemodynamics

Background:

  • Accurate measurement of stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output (CO) is crucial for patient management.
  • Two-dimensional (2D) transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is commonly used, but its accuracy in determining left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) area may be limited.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare the determination of SV and CO using 2D versus 3-dimensional (3D) TEE.
  • To evaluate the impact of LVOT area measurement differences on SV and CO calculations.

Main Methods:

  • Prospective observational study conducted at a tertiary care university hospital.
  • 35 patients without structural valve abnormalities undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting were included.
  • LVOT cross-sectional area (CSALVOT) was measured using both 2D TEE (estimating area from diameter) and 3D TEE (direct planimetry).
  • SV and CO were calculated using the continuity equation for both methods.

Main Results:

  • The LVOT area measured by 3D TEE was significantly larger than that measured by 2D TEE (3.98±0.93 cm² vs. 3.57±0.70 cm²).
  • This difference in LVOT area resulted in an approximately 10% lower CO calculation when using the 2D TEE method.

Conclusions:

  • The single-axis 2D TEE method tends to underestimate LVOT area compared to 3D TEE planimetry.
  • This underestimation leads to a significant underestimation of cardiac output by approximately 10% when using 2D TEE.