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Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor,...

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' Disease I: Introduction

Graves' disease is an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism, or overactivity of the thyroid gland. It results from autoantibodies called thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSIs), which bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptors, leading to overstimulation of hormone production and a hypermetabolic state.EtiologyAlthough considered idiopathic, Graves’ disease has well-established contributing factors. There is a strong genetic component, with increased prevalence...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 30, 2026

Author Spotlight: Integrating Ultrasound Imaging with Biochemical Markers for Thyroid Disease Diagnosis

Author Spotlight: Integrating Ultrasound Imaging with Biochemical Markers for Thyroid Disease Diagnosis

Published on: February 9, 2024

Hypothyroidism (primary).

Birte Nygaard¹

¹University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.

BMJ Clinical Evidence

|May 9, 2014

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

This systematic review examines treatments for hypothyroidism, a condition more common in women. It found nine studies evaluating levothyroxine and combination therapy for overt and subclinical hypothyroidism.

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Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Published on: March 17, 2023

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Last Updated: Apr 30, 2026

Author Spotlight: Integrating Ultrasound Imaging with Biochemical Markers for Thyroid Disease Diagnosis

Author Spotlight: Integrating Ultrasound Imaging with Biochemical Markers for Thyroid Disease Diagnosis

Published on: February 9, 2024

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Generation of a Mouse Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis Model

Published on: March 17, 2023

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Internal Medicine

Background:

Hypothyroidism affects women disproportionately, with up to 40 in 10,000 diagnosed annually, compared to 6 in 10,000 men.
The review addresses clinical questions regarding treatments for both overt and subclinical hypothyroidism.

Purpose of the Study:

To systematically review the effects of treatments for clinical (overt) hypothyroidism.
To systematically review the effects of treatments for subclinical hypothyroidism.

Main Methods:

A systematic literature search was conducted across major databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library) up to July 2013.
Included harms alerts from regulatory agencies like the FDA and MHRA.
Nine studies met the inclusion criteria for the review.

Main Results:

The review identified nine studies that met the inclusion criteria.
A GRADE evaluation was performed to assess the quality of evidence for interventions.

Conclusions:

The systematic review presents data on the effectiveness and safety of levothyroxine monotherapy.
Information on the effectiveness and safety of levothyroxine combined with liothyronine is also presented.