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Biosynthesis of Polysaccharides01:26

Biosynthesis of Polysaccharides

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Polysaccharides such as glycogen and starch are synthesized from nucleoside diphosphate sugars, primarily uridine diphosphate glucose (UDPG) and adenosine diphosphate glucose (ADPG). These activated glucose donors act as key intermediates in carbohydrate metabolism and biosynthesis. UDPG primarily involves glycogen synthesis in animals and many bacteria, while ADPG plays a fundamental role in starch synthesis in plants and certain bacteria.UDPG is formed when glucose-1-phosphate reacts with...
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In cellular metabolism (the complete breakdown of glucose to extract energy),  glycolysis is the first step. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport, where the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These...
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So far, glycolysis has cost the cell two ATP molecules and produced two small, three-carbon sugar molecules. These molecules will proceed through the second half of the pathway, and sufficient energy will be extracted to pay back the two ATP molecules used as an initial investment and produce a profit for the cell of two additional ATP molecules and two even higher-energy NADH molecules.
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Biological macromolecules are organic compounds, predominantly composed of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are covalently bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other minor elements. There are four major biological macromolecule classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
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Glycolysis is divided into two phases based on whether energy is utilized or released. While the first phase consumes ATP, the second phase produces energy in the form of ATP and NADH. The energy is released over a sequence of reactions that turns G3P into pyruvate. The energy-releasing phase—steps 6-10 of glycolysis—occurs twice, once for each of the two 3-carbon sugars produced during steps 1-5 of the first phase.
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Glucose is the source of nearly all energy used by organisms. The first step of converting glucose into usable energy is called glycolysis. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of the cell over two phases: an energy-requiring phase and an energy-releasing phase. Over the first three steps, glucose is converted into different forms and attached to two phosphate groups donated by two ATP molecules, resulting in an unstable sugar. In the next two stages, the unstable sugar splits into two sugar...
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Enzymatic synthesis using glycoside phosphorylases.

Ellis C O'Neill1, Robert A Field1

  • 1Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK.

Carbohydrate Research
|July 26, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Carbohydrate phosphorylases are versatile enzymes for synthesizing glycosides using sugar phosphates. Discovering more phosphorylases will enable the creation of complex carbohydrates.

Keywords:
GlycosidesPhosphorylasesSynthesis

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Area of Science:

  • Biocatalysis
  • Carbohydrate Chemistry
  • Enzymology

Background:

  • Carbohydrate phosphorylases are accessible biocatalysts with potential in glycoside synthesis.
  • They utilize stable sugar phosphates as donor substrates, offering a practical advantage.
  • Recent discoveries have expanded the known range of these enzymes and their specificities.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review carbohydrate phosphorylase enzymes.
  • To summarize the diverse glycoside products synthesized using these enzymes.
  • To highlight the potential of phosphorylases in carbohydrate synthesis.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of reported carbohydrate phosphorylase enzymes.
  • Analysis of enzyme specificities for sugar donors, acceptors, and glycosidic linkages.
  • Compilation of synthesized glycoside structures and their applications.

Main Results:

  • A broad spectrum of carbohydrate phosphorylases has been identified.
  • These enzymes exhibit varied substrate preferences, enabling synthesis of diverse structures.
  • Successful industrial-scale synthesis of complex carbohydrates has been achieved.

Conclusions:

  • Carbohydrate phosphorylases are powerful tools for glycoside synthesis.
  • Continued discovery of phosphorylases will unlock access to more challenging carbohydrate structures.
  • These enzymes hold significant promise for both research and industrial applications in carbohydrate chemistry.