Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

At the molecular level, visual signals trigger transformations in photopigment molecules, resulting in changes in the photoreceptor cell's membrane potential. The photon's energy level is denoted by its wavelength, with each specific wavelength of visible light associated with a distinct color. The spectral range of visible light, classified as electromagnetic radiation, spans from 380 to 720 nm. Electromagnetic radiation wavelengths exceeding 720 nm fall under the infrared category,...

Color Vision

Color Vision

Color perception begins in the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. Two main theories explain how colors are seen: the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. The trichromatic theory, proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 and extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1852, suggests that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors in the retina. These cones are sensitive to different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths corresponding to red, blue, and green.

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

A cone opsin double knockout mouse reveals long-term cone survival and provides a platform for gene therapy.

Research square·2026

Same author

Synaptic Inputs to OFF Parasol Ganglion Cells in Macaque Retina: An Analysis Using Serial Blockface Scanning Electron Microscopy.

Brain sciences·2026

Same author

RNA interference to reduce <i>Egr1</i> expression in rods delays retinal degeneration in a model of retinitis pigmentosa.

Molecular vision·2026

Same author

Fibromyalgia Analog Model index analysis demonstrates the predictive validity of the Dahl S rat as a model of fibromyalgia.

Pain·2026

Same author

Amacrine cell inputs to OFF midget ganglion cells in macaque retina.

The Journal of physiology·2025

Same author

iPhone-based anomaloscope for accessible, accurate color vision testing.

Journal of the Optical Society of America. A, Optics, image science, and vision·2025

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 25, 2026

Mouse Eye Enucleation for Remote High-throughput Phenotyping

Mouse Eye Enucleation for Remote High-throughput Phenotyping

Published on: November 19, 2011

Curing color blindness--mice and nonhuman primates.

Maureen Neitz¹, Jay Neitz¹

¹Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109.

Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine

|August 23, 2014

Summary

Viral-mediated gene therapy enabled red-green color-blind primates to achieve trichromacy, even after critical developmental periods. This suggests gene therapy can restore vision by adding cone types, potentially mirroring evolutionary processes.

More Related Videos

A Method for Lineage Tracing of Corneal Cells Using Multi-color Fluorescent Reporter Mice

A Method for Lineage Tracing of Corneal Cells Using Multi-color Fluorescent Reporter Mice

Published on: December 18, 2015

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

Published on: February 13, 2021

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Apr 25, 2026

Mouse Eye Enucleation for Remote High-throughput Phenotyping

Mouse Eye Enucleation for Remote High-throughput Phenotyping

Published on: November 19, 2011

A Method for Lineage Tracing of Corneal Cells Using Multi-color Fluorescent Reporter Mice

A Method for Lineage Tracing of Corneal Cells Using Multi-color Fluorescent Reporter Mice

Published on: December 18, 2015

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

Published on: February 13, 2021

Area of Science:

Ophthalmology
Neuroscience
Genetics

Background:

Dichromacy, or red-green color blindness, results from a lack of specific cone photoreceptors.
Gene therapy offers a potential avenue for restoring lost visual functions.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the efficacy of viral-mediated gene therapy in restoring trichromatic vision in dichromatic primates.
To explore whether acquired trichromacy in primates recapitulates evolutionary pathways.

Main Methods:

Viral vectors were used to introduce a third cone opsin gene into dichromatic primates.
Behavioral and physiological assessments were conducted to evaluate color vision capabilities post-treatment.

Main Results:

Treated primates acquired functional red-green color vision, despite gene delivery occurring after developmental critical periods.
Transgenic mice with an added cone type also showed some trichromacy, but less effectively than primates.

Conclusions:

Gene therapy can successfully restore trichromatic color vision in primates by adding a third cone type, even in adulthood.
The results suggest that the evolution of trichromacy may not have required significant neural circuit modifications.
Differences in outcomes between primates and mice highlight species-specific abilities to integrate new visual information, with implications for treating human vision disorders.