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Rheumatic heart disease or RHD is a chronic condition that results from rheumatic fever, causing permanent damage to the heart valves.Etiology and Risk FactorsIt primarily arises from rheumatic fever, an inflammatory disease that can develop after untreated or inadequately treated group A streptococcal (GAS) pharyngitis. Streptococcus spreads through direct contact with oral or respiratory secretions. While the bacteria are the causative agents, factors like malnutrition, overcrowding, poor...
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Arrhythmia or dysrhythmia refers to an abnormal heart rhythm caused by a defect in the heart's conduction system. It can cause the heart to beat irregularly, too quickly, or too slowly, leading to symptoms like chest pain, shortness of breath, and fainting. Factors such as stress, caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, certain drugs, congenital defects, diseases, and electrolyte abnormalities can trigger arrhythmias.
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Mitral regurgitation is characterized by the backward circulation of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium during systole, a phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts and pumps blood out of the chambers. This abnormal flow occurs primarily due to the dysfunction of the mitral valve or its supporting structures, which include the mitral leaflets, chordae tendineae, annulus, and papillary muscles.Etiology and Mechanisms:Primary Mitral Regurgitation: This type arises from...
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Systolic Heart Failure and Compensatory MechanismsSystolic heart failure (also termed HFrEF, Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction) is the most prevalent type of heart filure. It results in a decreased volume of blood being pumped from the ventricle. The aortic arch and carotid sinuses have baroreceptors that detect reduced blood pressure, triggering the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) to release epinephrine and norepinephrine. Initially, this response aims to boost heart rate and...
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The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, maintaining a balance between blood sent out (cardiac output) and blood returning (venous return). If this balance is disrupted, it can result in congestive heart failure (CHF), a severe condition where the heart becomes an inefficient pump, leading to inadequate blood circulation.
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Updated: Apr 12, 2026

Catheter Ablation in Combination With Left Atrial Appendage Closure for Atrial Fibrillation
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Atrial fibrillation (chronic).

Deirdre A Lane1, Christopher J Boos, Gregory Y H Lip

  • 1University of Birmingham Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK.

BMJ Clinical Evidence
|May 22, 2015
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This systematic review examines oral medications for rate control in chronic non-valvular atrial fibrillation. Beta-blockers, calcium-channel blockers, and digoxin were evaluated for effectiveness and safety.

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Area of Science:

  • Cardiology
  • Pharmacology
  • Systematic Reviews

Background:

  • Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a common arrhythmia causing inefficient atrial contraction.
  • Key risk factors include advanced age, male sex, and comorbidities like cardiac disease, thyroid issues, and infections.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To systematically review the effects of oral medical treatments for heart rate control in chronic non-valvular atrial fibrillation.
  • To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of commonly prescribed medications.

Main Methods:

  • Conducted a systematic literature search across major databases (Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library) up to May 2014.
  • Included data from four studies meeting inclusion criteria and analyzed harms alerts from regulatory agencies.
  • Utilized GRADE methodology to assess the quality of evidence for interventions.

Main Results:

  • Identified four studies that met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review.
  • Evaluated the evidence for beta-blockers, calcium-channel blockers, and digoxin, with or without digoxin combination therapy.

Conclusions:

  • The review presents findings on the effectiveness and safety of beta-blockers, calcium-channel blockers, and digoxin for rate control in non-valvular atrial fibrillation.
  • These medication classes are key interventions for managing chronic atrial fibrillation.