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Peptide Bonds

Peptide Bonds

A peptide bond covalently attaches amino acids through a dehydration reaction. One amino acid's carboxyl group and another amino acid's amino group combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond. The products that such linkages form are peptides. As more amino acids join this growing chain, the resulting chain is a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end has the N-terminal, or the amino-terminal, and the other end has a free...

What are Proteins?

What are Proteins?

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of amino acids. However, polypeptides have a molecular weight of fewer than 10,000 daltons, while proteins have greater molecular weight. Polypeptides with less than 20 amino acids are called oligopeptides or simply peptides. Interactions among the constituent amino acid side chains of proteins help them fold into a stable 3-dimensional...

What are Proteins?

What are Proteins?

Types of Hormones

Types of Hormones

Hormones are classified into four main groups: steroids, eicosanoids, amino acid-based derivatives, and peptide hormones.
Steroids and eicosanoids fall under the category of lipid-soluble hormones. Steroids are derived from cholesterol and feature four interconnected carbon rings with variable side chains. Notable examples include estradiol from ovaries and testosterone from testes, exemplifying the critical roles of these lipid-soluble hormones in reproductive physiology. Eicosanoids, derived...

Types of Hormones

Types of Hormones

Hormones can be classified into three main types based on their chemical structures: steroids, peptides, and amines. Their actions are mediated by the specific receptors they bind to on target cells.

Protein Digestion

Protein Digestion

Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where the highly acidic environment can easily disrupt protein structure by exposing the peptide bonds of polypeptide chains. After polypeptide chains are broken into individual amino acids by a series of digestive enzymes, the amino acids are transported to the liver via the bloodstream to produce energy.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 10, 2026

A RAPID Method for Blood Processing to Increase the Yield of Plasma Peptide Levels in Human Blood

A RAPID Method for Blood Processing to Increase the Yield of Plasma Peptide Levels in Human Blood

Published on: April 28, 2016

Peptides: Basic determinants of reproductive functions.

Onder Celik¹, Suleyman Aydin², Nilufer Celik³

¹Private Clinic, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, İzmir, Turkey.

|June 16, 2015

Summary

Metabolic status significantly impacts mammalian reproduction by signaling the hypothalamus through hormones like leptin and ghrelin. These hormones, along with kisspeptin, play crucial roles in regulating fertility and reproductive functions.

Keywords:

Infertility Peptides Reproduction

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Area of Science:

Neuroendocrinology
Reproductive Biology
Metabolic Regulation

Background:

Mammalian reproduction is energetically demanding, with metabolic status influencing fertility.
Peripheral signals from adipose and gastrointestinal tissues inform the hypothalamus about energy stores.
Hormones like leptin, insulin, and ghrelin fluctuate with energy balance, affecting metabolism and reproduction.

Purpose of the Study:

To review central mechanisms integrating metabolic information for reproductive control.
To analyze the roles of key peptides and neurons in metabolic control of reproduction.
To explore potential therapeutic applications of metabolic regulators in reproductive medicine.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on metabolic and reproductive neuroendocrine pathways.
Analysis of the roles of specific peptides including leptin, ghrelin, and kisspeptin.
Discussion of the interactions between metabolic and reproductive regulatory systems.

Main Results:

Leptin and ghrelin exhibit antagonistic effects on GnRH neurons, suggesting therapeutic potential.
Kisspeptin neurons mediate the link between energy balance and reproductive functions.
Various peptides (NPY, orexin, VIP, etc.) and neurons (POMC) are involved in metabolic control of reproduction.

Conclusions:

Metabolic status is a critical determinant of reproductive function through hypothalamic signaling.
Leptin, ghrelin, and kisspeptin offer potential as novel therapeutic agents for reproductive disorders.
Understanding these neuroendocrine pathways is key to addressing infertility and other reproductive issues.