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Cognitive learning is based on purposive behavior, incidental learning, and insight learning.
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The formal operational stage, as described in Piaget's cognitive development theory, begins around age 11 and extends into adulthood. It marks the emergence of advanced cognitive abilities that differentiate adolescent and adult thinking from those of younger children. This stage is characterized by abstract reasoning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and a more complex understanding of self and others.
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In psychology, concepts can be divided into two categories: natural and artificial. Natural concepts are formed through direct or indirect experiences. For example, consider the concept of snow. If you live in a place with regular snowfall, such as Essex Junction, Vermont, you know snow through direct experiences. You’ve seen it fall, touched it, shoveled it, and played in it. You recognize its texture, appearance, and even its smell. In contrast, if you live on an island like Saint...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 5, 2026

Problem-Solving Before Instruction PS-I: A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities
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Analogy, higher order thinking, and education.

Lindsey Engle Richland1, Nina Simms1

  • 1Comparative Human Development, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.

Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Cognitive Science
|August 12, 2015
PubMed
Summary

Analogical reasoning, or relational reasoning, is key to higher-order thinking in education. Explicit support is needed for students to effectively use analogies for deeper learning across subjects.

Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Science
  • Educational Psychology
  • Science Education

Background:

  • 21st-century education prioritizes flexible, conceptual thinking over memorization.
  • Lack of a cognitive definition for higher-order thinking hinders coherence in research and practice.
  • Analogical reasoning is crucial for understanding phenomena as structured relationships.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To propose relational reasoning as the cognitive basis for higher-order thinking.
  • To review literature on analogy and disciplinary higher-order thinking.
  • To explore the utility of this framework in educational contexts.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of analogy research.
  • Analysis of higher-order thinking in disciplinary contexts (mathematics, science, history).

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  • Conceptual framework development linking relational reasoning to higher-order thinking.

    • Main Results:

    • Relational reasoning provides a cognitively grounded definition for higher-order thinking.
    • Analogy is essential for developing expert-like disciplinary knowledge.
    • Effective use of analogy requires explicit instructional support for learners.

    Conclusions:

    • Relational reasoning underpins higher-order thinking and expert knowledge acquisition.
    • Educational practices should explicitly support the development of analogical reasoning skills.
    • This framework enhances coherence between cognitive science and educational practices.