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Related Concept Videos

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Overview01:31

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Overview

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There are various methods for the preparation of carboxylic acids. For example, oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes using strong oxidizing agents results in a carboxylic acid.  Aldehydes can also be oxidized in the presence of mild oxidizing agents.
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Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Carboxylation of Grignard Reagents01:13

Preparation of Carboxylic Acids: Carboxylation of Grignard Reagents

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Carboxylic acids can be prepared by the carboxylation of Grignard reagents (RMgX). This method is convenient for converting alkyl (primary, secondary or tertiary), vinyl, benzyl, and aryl halides to carboxylic acids with one additional carbon than the starting RMgX.
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Loss of Carboxy Group as CO2: Decarboxylation of Malonic Acid Derivatives01:35

Loss of Carboxy Group as CO2: Decarboxylation of Malonic Acid Derivatives

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Just like β-keto acids—which upon thermal decarboxylation form ketones—β-dicarboxylic acids undergo decarboxylation to generate monocarboxylic acids with the liberation of carbon dioxide.
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Phase II Reactions: Glucuronidation01:24

Phase II Reactions: Glucuronidation

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Glucuronidation, a pivotal phase II biotransformation process, involves the coupling of glucuronic acid to a drug or xenobiotic. Given its widespread occurrence and critical role in drug metabolism, it's considered the most crucial phase II reaction. It enhances the water solubility of substances, aiding their expulsion from the body. The driving force behind these reactions is a group of enzymes known as UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs). UGTs facilitate the transfer of a glucuronic acid...
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Glycolysis: Preparatory Phase01:21

Glycolysis: Preparatory Phase

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In cellular metabolism (the complete breakdown of glucose to extract energy),  glycolysis is the first step. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport, where the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These...
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Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent01:14

Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent

4.4K
Lithium dialkyl cuprate, also known as Gilman reagents, selectively reduces acid halides to ketones. The acid chloride is treated with Gilman reagent at −78 °C in the presence of ether solution to produce a ketone in good yield.
As shown below, the mechanism proceeds in two steps. First, one of the alkyl groups of the reagent acts as a nucleophile and attacks the acyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. This is followed by the reformation of the carbon–oxygen...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 3, 2026

GC-based Detection of Aldononitrile Acetate Derivatized Glucosamine and Muramic Acid for Microbial Residue Determination in Soil
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[Progress in glucaric acid].

Yuying Qiu, Fang Fang, Guocheng Du

    Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao = Chinese Journal of Biotechnology
    |September 19, 2015
    PubMed
    Summary

    Glucaric acid (GA) is a valuable bio-based chemical with diverse industrial, food, and therapeutic applications. This review covers GA

    Area of Science:

    • Biotechnology and Industrial Chemistry
    • Biomass Valorization
    • Chemical Synthesis

    Background:

    • Glucaric acid (GA) is a glucose derivative with significant industrial applications.
    • It is recognized as a top value-added chemical from biomass, crucial for polymers and bioenergy.
    • Growing demand exists in food manufacturing, alongside therapeutic interest for hormone regulation, immune support, and cancer risk reduction.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To review current applications of glucaric acid.
    • To summarize preparation and quantification methods for glucaric acid.
    • To discuss the potential of microbial fermentation for glucaric acid production.

    Main Methods:

    • Literature review of scientific publications on glucaric acid.

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  • Analysis of existing chemical oxidation production methods.
  • Exploration of preliminary research on microbial synthesis pathways.

    • Main Results:

    • Glucaric acid has established uses in the chemical industry and emerging roles in food and medicine.
    • Chemical oxidation is the current primary production method.
    • Microbial synthesis of glucaric acid is an emerging research area with preliminary findings.

    Conclusions:

    • Glucaric acid is a versatile compound with expanding applications.
    • Further research into microbial fermentation is needed to establish sustainable production methods.
    • Advancements in biosynthesis could unlock new avenues for glucaric acid utilization.