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Self-discrepancy theory explains how people compare their actual self to their ideal and ought selves and how mismatches between these self-guides can lead to emotional distress. Developed by E. Tory Higgins, the theory distinguishes among three components of self-concept: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self. These refer respectively to how individuals perceive themselves, how they aspire to be, and how they believe they are obligated to be. Emotional well-being, self-esteem,...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 1, 2026

Perceptual and Category Processing of the Uncanny Valley Hypothesis' Dimension of Human Likeness: Some Methodological Issues
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Two unresolved problems facing models of the Self-Nonself discrimination.

Melvin Cohn1

  • 1Conceptual Immunology Group, The Salk Institute, 10010 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La Jolla, CA 92037-1099, USA.

Journal of Theoretical Biology
|October 10, 2015
PubMed
Summary

The 50-year-old Associative (linked) Recognition of Antigen (ARA) model for self-nonself discrimination has two key questions. This essay re-examines the ARA model to address these issues and propose solutions.

Keywords:
Antigen presenting cellAutoimmunityT cell receptor polyreactivityT cell receptor signalingTolerance

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Theoretical Biology

Background:

  • The established Associative (linked) Recognition of Antigen (ARA) model explains self-nonself discrimination.
  • This foundational model has been supported by extensive experimental and conceptual evidence for over five decades.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To address two persistent, unresolved questions within the existing ARA model.
  • To re-evaluate fundamental aspects of the ARA model in light of these questions.

Main Methods:

  • Conceptual analysis of the ARA model.
  • Reconsideration of established principles within immunology.

Main Results:

  • Identification of two critical, unresolved issues within the ARA model.
  • Uncovering previously unaddressed facets of the ARA model during the examination.

Conclusions:

  • The ARA model requires further refinement to fully address self-nonself discrimination.
  • Proposed solutions are offered to resolve the identified problems within the ARA framework.