Animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and the spinal muscular atrophies

The causes of human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and the spinal muscular atrophies (SMA) are, almost without exception, unknown. This ignorance has stimulated the search for animal models to obtain insight into the etiology, pathogenesis and biochemical mechanisms underlying the human disorders. None of the 38 animal models, described in this review, provides an exact animal copy of a specific human motor neuron disease. Most of the models reproduce certain structural or physiological aspects of their human counterparts. The various experimental models can be classified according to the pathogenetic mechanism involved and according to the structural changes observed. Models based on experimentally induced disease, include heavy metals and trace elements (lead intoxication in guinea pigs, rabbits, rats, cats and primates; mercury intoxication in rats; aluminium intoxication in rabbits; swayback in goat kids; calcium and magnesium deficient rabbits and primates and calcium deficient cynomolgus monkeys), toxins (IDPN, vincristine, vinblastine, podophyllotoxin, colchicine, maytansine, maytanprine, L-BMAA, lectins, adriamycin), nutritional factors (ascorbic acid deficient guinea pigs), virus infection (spongiform polioencephalomyelitis, attenuated poliovirus, lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus), and immunological factors (immunization with motor neurons). Hereditary models comprise hereditary canine spinal muscular atrophy, hereditary neurogenic amyotrophy in the pointer dog, Stockard paralysis, Swedish Lapland dog paralysis, "wobbler" mouse, "shaker" calf, and hereditary spinal muscular atrophy in zebra foals, crossbred rabbits,