Fish Chromatophores--From Molecular Motors to Animal Behavior

Chromatophores are pigment-bearing cells of lower vertebrates, including fish that cater for the ability of individual animals to shift body coloration and pattern. Color change provides dynamic camouflage and various kinds of communication. It is also a spectacular example of phenotypic plasticity, and of significant importance for adaptation and survival in novel environments. Through different cellular mechanisms, color change can occur within minutes or more slowly over weeks. Chromatophores have different pigment types and are located not only in the skin, but also in the eyes and internally. While morphological color change, including seasonal color change, has received a lot of interest from evolutionary biologists and behavioral ecologists, the more rapid physiological color change has been largely a research subject for cell physiologists. In this cross-disciplinary review, we have highlighted emerging trends in pigment cell research and identified unsolved problems for future research.