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Related Concept Videos

Self-Report Tests of Personality01:22

Self-Report Tests of Personality

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Self-report inventories are objective personality assessments that use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, typically ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). They are often called Likert scales after Rensis Likert. These inventories are widely used due to their ease of administration and cost-effectiveness. One of the most prominent examples is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), initially developed in the 1940s to assess abnormal personality traits.
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Cause and Effect01:53

Cause and Effect

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While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. For instance, as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall rate of crime. Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone?
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Correlations02:20

Correlations

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Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime), but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect. When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other. We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between...
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Spearman's Rank Correlation Test01:20

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Spearman's rank correlation test, also known as Spearman's rho, is a nonparametric method for assessing the strength and direction of association between two variables. This test is particularly valuable when the data distribution is unknown or when the assumption of normality does not hold. Named after the English psychologist and statistician Dr. Charles Edward Spearman, it serves as the nonparametric counterpart to Pearson's correlation coefficient.
Spearman's test calculates correlation by...
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Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory01:29

Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory

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Attribution theory plays a crucial role in social psychology, helping to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior. One prominent model within this field is Harold Kelley's covariation theory, which provides a systematic approach to determining whether internal traits or external circumstances drive a person's actions. The model posits that individuals rely on three key types of information—consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness—to make these judgments.Consensus:...
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Theory of Attribution I: Correspondent Inference Theory01:15

Theory of Attribution I: Correspondent Inference Theory

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Correspondent inference theory, proposed by Jones and Davis in 1965, seeks to explain how individuals infer stable personality traits from observed behaviors. It suggests that people attribute actions to underlying dispositions rather than external circumstances, particularly when the behavior appears intentional and socially significant.Voluntary Behavior and Dispositional AttributionAccording to this theory, individuals are more likely to attribute behavior to personal traits when it appears...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 26, 2026

Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Hyperscanning Study in Psychological Counseling
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Corrections For Spurious Influences On Correlations Between Mmpi Scales.

D V Budescu, J L Rodgers

    Multivariate Behavioral Research
    |January 27, 2016
    PubMed
    Summary

    Overlapping items in personality scales like the MMPI create spurious correlations. A reliability solution adjusted these correlations, significantly altering results and revealing the true relationships between subscales.

    Area of Science:

    • Psychometrics
    • Psychological Measurement

    Background:

    • Correlations between measures with shared items are inflated due to overlap.
    • This spurious component affects personality scales like the MMPI and CPI.
    • Existing adjustment methods are insufficient.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To address spurious correlations caused by overlapping items in psychometric measures.
    • To apply Bashaw and Anderson's (1967) reliability solution for accurate correlation analysis.
    • To demonstrate the impact of item overlap on correlation structures.

    Main Methods:

    • Review and comparison of statistical and experimental adjustment methods.
    • Application of Bashaw and Anderson's (1967) reliability solution.
    • Analysis of the "Minnesota normals" MMPI data.

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  • Principal components analysis to examine correlation structure changes.

    • Main Results:

    • 32 out of 36 correlations were altered after adjustment.
    • Six correlations were radically changed, and two reversed sign.
    • Principal components analysis indicated significant shifts in the correlation structure.

    Conclusions:

    • Item overlap significantly distorts correlations in personality scales.
    • The reliability solution effectively corrects for spurious correlations.
    • Accurate correlation analysis is crucial for understanding psychometric relationships.