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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 21, 2026

Eye-tracking to Distinguish Comprehension-based and Oculomotor-based Regressive Eye Movements During Reading
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Narrative event boundaries, reading times, and expectation.

Kyle A Pettijohn1, Gabriel A Radvansky2

  • 1Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, 260 Haggar Hall, Notre Dame, IN, 46556, USA. Pettijohn.1@nd.edu.

Memory & Cognition
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Summary

Reading comprehension involves updating mental situation models. Unexpected event shifts increase reading time, but foreshadowing reduces this effect by making shifts expected, not by altering model updating.

Keywords:
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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Natural Language Processing
  • Reading Comprehension

Background:

  • Readers construct mental situation models during text comprehension.
  • Event shifts in narratives can disrupt these models, potentially increasing reading times.
  • Previous research inconsistently links event shifts to increased reading times.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate whether reading time increases at event shifts are due to unexpectedness or situation model updating.
  • To re-examine the role of expectedness in narrative event shifts.
  • To differentiate processing costs associated with unexpectedness versus model updating.

Main Methods:

  • Reanalysis of prior studies linking reading time and event shifts.
  • Rating the expectedness of narrative event shifts.
  • Conducting new experiments manipulating the foreshadowing of event shifts.
  • Measuring reading times and memory probe responses.

Main Results:

  • Previously observed reading time increases at event shifts were associated with lower expectedness.
  • Foreshadowing event shifts eliminated the increase in reading time.
  • Situation model updating, indicated by memory probe responses, occurred regardless of foreshadowing.
  • Reading time increases appear linked to unexpectedness, not solely to updating processing.

Conclusions:

  • Reading time increases at event shifts are significantly influenced by the unexpectedness of the shift.
  • Foreshadowing mitigates reading time increases by managing reader expectations.
  • Situation model updating is a distinct process from the unexpectedness effect on reading time.