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Altruism: its characteristics and evolution.

P J Darlington

    Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
    |January 1, 1978
    PubMed
    Summary
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    Altruism, benefiting others at personal cost, is explained by reciprocal altruism and kin-group selection. This group phenomenon evolves through individual selection, influenced by environment and competition.

    Area of Science:

    • Evolutionary biology
    • Behavioral ecology

    Background:

    • Altruism presents a paradox: individuals benefit others at their own expense.
    • Traditional explanations include kin-group selection and reciprocal altruism.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To reconcile the presumption of selfishness with the observation of altruistic behavior.
    • To generalize the conditions and evolutionary pathways of altruism.

    Main Methods:

    • Analysis of altruistic phenomena through idealized cases and real-world examples (e.g., bird alarm calls).
    • Examination of evolutionary mechanisms, including individual selection, co-evolution, and group selection.

    Main Results:

    • Altruism is potentially reciprocal, profitable, environmentally determined, and a net-gain lottery.

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  • Reciprocal altruism is ubiquitous, while kin-group selection's role may be overestimated.
  • Altruism evolves via individual selection, opposed by competition, and supplemented by group selection.

    • Conclusions:

    • Human altruism aligns with these evolutionary generalizations, driven by emotions rather than calculation.
    • Altruism is a complex, slow-evolving trait favoring flexible strategies.