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Updated: Mar 19, 2026

In Vitro Cellular Activity Evaluation of the Nanoemulsion Vaccine Adjuvant Ophiopogonin D
Published on: December 9, 2022
Adjuvants: Classification, Modus Operandi, and Licensing
Juliana de Souza Apostólico1, Victória Alves Santos Lunardelli1, Fernanda Caroline Coirada1
1Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP/EPM), Rua Botucatu, 4° Andar, 04023-062 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
Abstract:
Vaccination is one of the most efficient strategies for the prevention of infectious diseases. Although safer, subunit vaccines are poorly immunogenic and for this reason the use of adjuvants is strongly recommended. Since their discovery in the beginning of the 20th century, adjuvants have been used to improve immune responses that ultimately lead to protection against disease. The choice of the adjuvant is of utmost importance as it can stimulate protective immunity. Their mechanisms of action have now been revealed. Our increasing understanding of the immune system, and of correlates of protection, is helping in the development of new vaccine formulations for global infections. Nevertheless, few adjuvants are licensed for human vaccines and several formulations are now being evaluated in clinical trials. In this review, we briefly describe the most well known adjuvants used in experimental and clinical settings based on their main mechanisms of action and also highlight the requirements for licensing new vaccine formulations.
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