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The hyoid bone is a small U-shaped bone located in the upper neck at the level of the inferior mandible, with its tips pointing posteriorly. It does not directly articulate with any other bone in the body. The hyoid acts as the attachment site for the tongue, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is held in position by a series of small muscles attached from above or below. These muscles help to move the hyoid up/down or forward/back in coordination with movements of the tongue, larynx, and pharynx...
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The diencephalon, etymologically translated as 'through brain,' plays an integral role as the conduit between the cerebrum and the vast extent of the nervous system. However, the olfactory system is an exception, as it interfaces directly with the cerebrum. The diencephalon, deeply ensconced beneath the cerebrum, primarily consists of three paired structures — the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithelamus. It also includes accessory structures such as the subthalamus, which houses the...
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The surface of the tongue is covered with various small bumps called papillae, which either distribute what has been ingested (filiform papillae) or contain the sensory taste (or gustatory) receptor cells (fungiform, circumvallate, and foliate papillae). Embedded within each taste-related papilla are the taste buds—clusters of 30 to 100 gustatory receptor cells.
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Gustation, or the sense of taste, is intrinsically linked to the anatomical structures located on the tongue. This organ's surface, along with the entirety of the oral cavity, is adorned with stratified squamous epithelium. Evident on the tongue are elevated structures known as papillae (singular = papilla), which house the mechanisms for the transduction of gustatory stimuli. Four distinct types of papillae exist, each identified by their unique morphological attributes: the circumvallate,...
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The lateral view of the cranium is dominated by temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
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The pituitary is a small endocrine organ in the sphenoid bone under the hypothalamus. Primarily, the pituitary in adults has two distinct anatomical and functional regions— the anterior and posterior lobes. During human fetal development, a third pituitary gland region called the pars intermedia atrophies and disappears. However, some of its cells migrate and exist adjacent to the anterior pituitary in adults.
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The habenula.

Vijay Mohan K Namboodiri1, Jose Rodriguez-Romaguera2, Garret D Stuber3

  • 1Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.

Current Biology : CB
|October 12, 2016
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The habenula, a small brain region, is crucial for motivation and decision-making. This overlooked area connects key brain regions, revealing its significant role in cognitive functions.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Neuroanatomy

Background:

  • The habenula is a small, conserved brain region in vertebrates.
  • Traditionally overlooked, its function was misattributed to pineal gland regulation.
  • Recent evidence highlights its role as a central neuroanatomical hub.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To discuss converging evidence on the habenula's function.
  • To highlight the habenula's role in motivation and decision-making.

Main Methods:

  • Review of recent neuroscientific literature.
  • Analysis of neuroanatomical connections and functional studies.

Main Results:

  • The habenula connects and regulates brain regions involved in motivation.
  • Evidence points to the habenula's critical role in decision-making processes.

Conclusions:

  • The habenula is a key brain region for understanding motivation.
  • Further research into the habenula is essential for cognitive neuroscience.