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Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas01:12

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A mole is defined as the amount of any substance that contains as many molecules as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12. An Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856) formed the  hypothesis that equal volumes of gas at equal pressure and temperature contain equal numbers of molecules, independent of the type of gas. Later, the hypothesis was developed to form the SI unit for measuring the amount of any substance.
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The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize (convert into vapor). The process is called vaporization—a surface phenomenon. Vaporization occurs when the thermal motion of the molecules overcome the intermolecular forces, and the molecules (at the surface) escape into the gaseous state. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules...
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The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process called fusion. The principal source of energy in the sun is a net fusion reaction in which four hydrogen nuclei fuse and ultimately produce one helium nucleus and two positrons.
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Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition02:33

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Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and standard pressure, a piece of dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, appearing to gradually disappear without ever forming any liquid. Snow and ice sublimate at temperatures below the melting point of water, a slow process that may be accelerated by winds and the reduced atmospheric pressures at high altitudes. When solid iodine is warmed, the solid sublimes...
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Investigation of Early Plasma Evolution Induced by Ultrashort Laser Pulses
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Evolution to the quark-gluon plasma.

Kenji Fukushima1

  • 1Department of Physics, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.

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|December 20, 2016
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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This review covers early-time dynamics in ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions, focusing on the color glass condensate initial condition and thermalization. It explores plasma instabilities and the emergence of hydrodynamics from these complex systems.

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Area of Science:

  • High-energy nuclear physics
  • Quantum chromodynamics
  • Statistical mechanics

Background:

  • Understanding the initial state of ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions is crucial for interpreting experimental data.
  • The color glass condensate (CGC) provides a theoretical framework for describing the high-density gluon fields at early times.
  • The transition from a non-equilibrium state to a thermalized system (hydrodynamic regime) is a key phenomenon.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review theoretical advancements in early-time dynamics of heavy-ion collisions.
  • To provide pedagogical introductions to key concepts like CGC and thermalization.
  • To highlight recent developments in isotropization, hydrodynamics onset, and momentum cascades.

Main Methods:

  • Theoretical modeling of initial conditions using the color glass condensate framework.
  • Analysis of kinetic equations and classical statistical simulations.
  • Examination of plasma/glasma instabilities.

Main Results:

  • Overview of the bottom-up thermalization scenario.
  • Discussion of fast isotropization mechanisms.
  • Insights into the onset of hydrodynamic behavior.
  • Characterization of transient momentum spectral cascades.

Conclusions:

  • Early-time dynamics are complex, involving CGC, instabilities, and a transition to hydrodynamics.
  • Recent theoretical developments offer a deeper understanding of thermalization and emergent phenomena.
  • Further research is needed to fully elucidate the non-equilibrium evolution of quark-gluon plasma.