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This study models thermometers in nonequilibrium systems, revealing that thermometer temperature depends on system density and size, especially in thermostatted regions. This research advances understanding of heat conduction and temperature measurement in complex physical systems.

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Area of Science:

  • Thermodynamics
  • Statistical Mechanics
  • Computational Physics

Background:

  • Understanding temperature in nonequilibrium systems is crucial for various physical phenomena.
  • Traditional thermometers may perturb delicate steady states in microscopic systems.
  • Previous studies often used thermometers that altered system dynamics.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To accurately measure temperature in a nonequilibrium system using minimally invasive thermometers.
  • To investigate the different definitions of temperature (kinetic, configurational, dynamical) in a heat-conducting system.
  • To analyze the influence of system density and size on temperature measurements.

Main Methods:

  • Simulated heat conduction in a 3D Lennard-Jones (LJ) system with fixed temperatures at the ends.
  • Modeled thermometers using LJ potential with tethers to prevent rigid body motion.
  • Embedded small thermometers in five system strips to measure steady-state temperatures without altering the system.

Main Results:

  • Thermometers reached steady-state conditions, providing values for kinetic, configurational, and dynamical temperatures.
  • Thermometer temperatures closely matched the system's kinetic temperature in bulk regions.
  • Significant deviations were observed in thermostatted regions, where thermometer temperatures differed substantially from system kinetic and configurational temperatures.

Conclusions:

  • The study successfully measured nonequilibrium temperatures using minimally invasive thermometers.
  • Thermometer temperature readings are sensitive to local system conditions, particularly in thermostatted regions.
  • Decreasing system density and size amplifies discrepancies between kinetic and configurational temperatures, highlighting the importance of thermometer choice in nanoscale systems.