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Albert Bandura's observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. It is a quicker process than operant conditioning. A well-known example is the Bobo doll study, where children who saw an adult acting aggressively towards the doll were more likely to act aggressively when left alone, compared to those who observed a nonaggressive adult. Many psychologists view observational learning as a form of latent learning...
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E. C. Tolman emphasized the purposiveness of behavior — the idea that much of our behavior is goal-directed. For instance, employees who aim for a promotion work diligently to meet their targets. Tolman argued that when classical conditioning and operant conditioning occur, the organism acquires certain expectations. In classical conditioning, a child might fear a dog because they expect it to bite. In operant conditioning, a person might consistently work overtime because they expect a...
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Updated: Mar 6, 2026

Model Surgical Training: Skills Acquisition in Fetoscopic Laser Photocoagulation of Monochorionic Diamniotic Twin Placenta Using Realistic Simulators
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Learning to argue via apprenticeship.

Lia Papathomas1, Deanna Kuhn1

  • 1Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA.

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
|March 13, 2017
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Apprenticeship, or learning from a more capable peer, significantly improved middle school students' argumentation skills. This learning mechanism, even when the mentor was an adult, enhanced reasoning development over one year.

Keywords:
ApprenticeshipArgumentationCognitive DevelopmentCollaborationCritical ThinkingDiscourseExpert ModelingReasoningSocial LearningSociocultural Approach

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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Development
  • Educational Psychology
  • Social Reasoning

Background:

  • Higher-order reasoning skills, such as argumentation, are crucial for academic and social success.
  • Understanding the mechanisms that foster the development of these skills is essential for effective educational interventions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate apprenticeship as a mechanism for developing higher-order reasoning skills, specifically argumentation, in middle school students.
  • To determine the effectiveness of guided interaction with a more capable other in enhancing reasoning abilities.

Main Methods:

  • A 1-year longitudinal study involving middle school students engaged in twice-weekly electronic dialogs on social issues.
  • An experimental group received dialogs with peers and, unbeknownst to them, an adult acting as a more capable other in half the sessions.
  • A comparison group engaged in peer-only dialogs throughout the study.

Main Results:

  • The experimental group demonstrated superior argumentation quality compared to the peer-only comparison group.
  • Improvements in argumentation were observed immediately and increased over time.
  • The benefits extended to peer-only dialogs on new topics, indicating sustained skill development.

Conclusions:

  • Apprenticeship, characterized by interaction with a more capable individual, is a powerful mechanism for developing complex reasoning skills like argumentation.
  • This study provides both theoretical support for Vygotskian concepts of guided participation and practical implications for educational strategies.
  • The findings underscore the importance of structured, mentored interactions in fostering cognitive development in adolescents.