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Formation of Species

Formation of Species

Speciation describes the formation of one or more new species from one or sometimes multiple original species. The resulting species are discrete from the parent species, and barriers to reproduction will typically exist. There are two primary mechanisms, speciation with and without geographic isolation—allopatric and sympatric speciation, respectively.

Pollination and Flower Structure

Pollination and Flower Structure

Flowers are the reproductive, seed-producing structures of angiosperms. Typically, flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals and petals are the vegetative flower organs. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive organs.

Non-vascular Seedless Plants

Non-vascular Seedless Plants

The diverse plant life on Earth—consisting of nearly 400,000 species—can be divided into three broad categories based on biological characteristics: nonvascular, seedless vascular, and seed plants.

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Gene Flow

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the transfer of genes among populations, resulting from either the dispersal of gametes or from the migration of individuals.

The Evidence for Evolution

The Evidence for Evolution

Genetic variations accumulating within populations over generations give rise to biological evolution. Evolutionary changes can result in the formation of novel varieties and entire new species. These changes are responsible for the diverse forms of life inhabiting the planet. The evidence for evolution suggests that all living organisms descended from common ancestors.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Mar 6, 2026

Field Experiments of Pollination Ecology: The Case of Lycoris sanguinea var. sanguinea

Field Experiments of Pollination Ecology: The Case of Lycoris sanguinea var. sanguinea

Published on: November 25, 2016

Real-time divergent evolution in plants driven by pollinators.

Daniel D L Gervasi¹, Florian P Schiestl¹

¹Department of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, University of Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, Zürich 8008, Switzerland.

Nature Communications

|March 15, 2017

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Pollinator-driven evolution rapidly shapes plant traits. Experimental evolution in Brassica rapa showed plants adapted to bumblebee or hoverfly pollination, altering size, fragrance, and mating systems.

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Area of Science:

Evolutionary Biology
Plant Science
Ecology

Background:

Pollinator-driven diversification is a key evolutionary mechanism.
Previous studies relied on indirect evidence of pollinator influence on plant evolution.
Experimental evidence demonstrating direct pollinator-driven adaptive evolution is limited.

Purpose of the Study:

To experimentally demonstrate adaptive evolution in plant traits driven by different pollinators.
To investigate pollinator-driven divergent selection and evolution in Brassica rapa.
To assess the impact of pollinator shifts on plant traits and mating systems.

Main Methods:

Experimental evolution using fast-cycling Brassica rapa.
Controlled pollination treatments with bumblebees and hoverflies.
Measurement of plant traits (size, floral scent, UV reflection) and fitness.

Main Results:

Bumblebee-pollinated plants evolved increased height, fragrance, and UV reflection.
Hoverfly-pollinated plants evolved reduced height and floral volatiles but increased self-pollination.
Brassica rapa plants adapted to specific pollinator preferences within the experimental timeframe.

Conclusions:

Pollinator communities can drive rapid, divergent evolution in plant traits.
Changes in pollination can lead to significant shifts in plant mating systems.
Experimental evolution provides direct evidence for pollinator-driven adaptive diversification.