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Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge03:08

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Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10−15 meters, a nucleus is quite small compared to the radius of the entire atom, which is about 10−10 meters. Nuclei are extremely dense compared to bulk matter, averaging 1.8 × 1014 grams per cubic centimeter. If the earth’s density were equal to the average nuclear density, the earth’s radius would be only about 200 meters.
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The mass analyzer is a crucial component of the mass spectrometer. In the ionization chamber, the vaporized sample is bombarded with a high-energy electron beam to generate a radical cation and further fragment into neutral molecules, radicals, and cations. A series of negatively charged accelerator plates accelerate the cations into the mass analyzer. The mass analyzer separates ions according to their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios and then directs them to the detector. The common types of mass...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

Photoelectron Imaging of Anions Illustrated by 310 Nm Detachment of F−
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Sex at Atomic Resolution.

Jae Yeon Hwang1, Jean-Ju Chung2

  • 1Department of Cellular & Molecular Physiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.

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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Species-specific fertilization barriers are molecularly enforced. Researchers revealed mollusk egg coat protein VERL complexed with sperm protein lysin, offering insights into mammalian reproductive biology.

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Area of Science:

  • Reproductive biology
  • Structural biology
  • Molecular mechanisms of fertilization

Background:

  • Interspecies fertilization is infrequent, primarily due to molecular mechanisms that prevent successful gamete fusion.
  • Understanding these species-specific reproductive barriers is crucial for reproductive biology and conservation efforts.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the molecular basis of species-specific gamete recognition.
  • To determine the structural basis of the interaction between mollusk egg coat protein VERL and sperm protein lysin.

Main Methods:

  • X-ray crystallography was used to determine the complex structure of VERL and lysin.
  • Bioinformatic analysis was performed to compare VERL with homologous proteins in other species.

Main Results:

  • The crystal structures of mollusk egg coat protein VERL complexed with its cognate sperm protein lysin were revealed.
  • VERL shares structural similarities with mammalian zona pellucida protein 2 (ZP2).

Conclusions:

  • The findings provide a structural basis for understanding species-specific gamete recognition in mollusks.
  • The structural similarity between VERL and mammalian ZP2 suggests that similar molecular mechanisms may underlie gamete recognition in mammals.