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Related Concept Videos

Tonicity in Animals00:59

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The tonicity of a solution determines if a cell gains or loses water in that solution. The tonicity depends on the permeability of the cell membrane for different solutes and the concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the solution within and outside of the cell. If a semipermeable membrane hinders the passage of some solutes but allows water to follow its concentration gradient, water moves from the side with low osmolarity (i.e., less solute) to the side with higher osmolarity (i.e.,...
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Tonicity describes the amount of solute in a solution. The measure of the tonicity of a solution, or the total amount of solutes dissolved in a specific amount of solution, is called its osmolarity. Three terms—hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic—are used to relate the osmolarity of a cell to the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid that contains the cells. In a hypotonic solution, such as tap water, the extracellular fluid has a lower concentration of solutes than the fluid inside...
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The contraction strength of muscles is regulated by motor neurons, which modulate the frequency of action potentials dispatched to the motor units based on the body's requirements. This process of varying the muscle stimulation frequency allows muscles to contract with a force that is precisely tailored to the needs of the moment, whether lifting a feather or a heavy box.
Wave summation
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Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, or HCM, is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder characterized by asymmetric left ventricular hypertrophy without ventricular dilation. It is more common in men and is typically diagnosed in young, athletic adults.EtiologyHCM is primarily genetic and is caused by mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins. Researchers have identified over 1400 mutations across at least 11 different genes. Among these, the most frequently occurring mutations are found in the...
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Systolic Heart Failure and Compensatory MechanismsSystolic heart failure (also termed HFrEF, Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction) is the most prevalent type of heart filure. It results in a decreased volume of blood being pumped from the ventricle. The aortic arch and carotid sinuses have baroreceptors that detect reduced blood pressure, triggering the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) to release epinephrine and norepinephrine. Initially, this response aims to boost heart rate and...
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Plant cells maintain appropriate osmotic balance in extreme conditions. For instance, plants in dry environments store water in vacuoles, limit the opening of their stoma, and have thick, waxy cuticles to prevent unnecessary water loss. Some species of plants that live in salty environments store salt in their roots. As a result, water osmosis occurs in the root from the surrounding soil.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 26, 2026

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle
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Hypertonia.

Sarah Helen Evans1, Mark William Cameron1, Justin Michael Burton1

  • 1Pediatric Rehabilitation Medicine, Children׳s National Health System, Washington, DC.

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care
|July 19, 2017
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Hypertonia, an increase in muscle tone due to upper motor neuron lesions, presents challenges in children. Effective management of spasticity and dystonia is crucial for improving function and preventing complications.

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Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Pediatrics
  • Rehabilitation Medicine

Background:

  • Hypertonia involves increased muscle tone from upper motor neuron lesions, manifesting as spasticity, dystonia, or rigidity.
  • In pediatrics, hypertonia can lead to significant functional impairments, pain, and joint deformities if not managed effectively.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide a comprehensive overview of hypertonia in the pediatric population.
  • To examine the causes, epidemiology, symptoms, and management strategies for pediatric spasticity and dystonia.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review and synthesis of current knowledge on pediatric hypertonia.
  • Focus on clinical presentation, diagnostic considerations, and therapeutic interventions.

Main Results:

  • Hypertonia management is individualized, guided by patient/family goals and underlying etiology.
  • Treatment encompasses physical therapy, oral medications, botulinum toxin, phenol injections, and surgery.

Conclusions:

  • Early and appropriate management of pediatric hypertonia is essential for optimizing functional outcomes.
  • Addressing spasticity and dystonia can prevent secondary complications like contractures and joint deformities.