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Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

Atomic Mass

Atomic Mass

Atoms — and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them — are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 × 10−23 g. When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu). The amu was originally defined based on hydrogen, the lightest element, then later in terms of oxygen. Since 1961, it has been defined with regard to the most abundant isotope of carbon, atoms of which...

Atomic Orbitals

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are also observed. The attractive and repulsive forces are dependent on the distance between the particles, as well as the sign and magnitude of the charges on the individual particles. When the charges on the particles are opposite, they attract each other. If both particles have the same charge, they repel each other.

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four “elements” — fire, earth, air, and water — and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 11, 2026

Clock Scan Protocol for Image Analysis: ImageJ Plugins

Clock Scan Protocol for Image Analysis: ImageJ Plugins

Published on: June 19, 2017

Atomic clocks for geodesy.

Tanja E Mehlstäubler¹, Gesine Grosche¹, Christian Lisdat¹

¹Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany.

Reports on Progress in Physics. Physical Society (Great Britain)

|April 19, 2018

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Optical atomic clocks achieve unprecedented accuracy, enabling new applications in fundamental science and geodetic measurements. These advanced clocks promise cm-level height resolution for Earth

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Area of Science:

Atomic Physics and Metrology
Geophysics and Geodesy

Background:

Optical atomic clocks have achieved relative frequency inaccuracies below 10^-17.
Atomic frequencies are sensitive to gravitational potential, making them suitable for gravity sensing.

Purpose of the Study:

To review experimental progress in optical atomic clocks and frequency transfer.
To explore the application of optical atomic clocks in geodetic measurements.
To assess the potential for testing general relativity and unifying theories.

Main Methods:

Review of current experimental advancements in optical atomic clock technology.
Analysis of frequency transfer techniques for high-precision measurements.
Evaluation of the integration of optical clocks with satellite and terrestrial geodetic data.

Main Results:

Optical atomic clocks demonstrate potential for fundamental physics research and gravity sensing.
Development is progressing towards reliable, portable devices for field applications.
Future comparisons with uncertainties of 10^-18 are expected to yield cm-level geodetic height resolution.

Conclusions:

Optical atomic clocks represent a significant advancement in metrology with profound implications for geodesy.
Their long-term stability offers a robust solution for establishing and maintaining fundamental height references.
These technologies will enhance Earth observation, modeling, and our understanding of the planet.