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Related Concept Videos

Biological Effects of Radiation02:59

Biological Effects of Radiation

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All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they...
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Radiation: Applications01:17

Radiation: Applications

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The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
The average...
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Absorption of Radiation01:05

Absorption of Radiation

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The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:
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Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving01:09

Radiation Pressure: Problem Solving

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The radiation pressure applied by an electromagnetic wave on a perfectly absorbing surface equals the energy density of the wave. The wave's momentum also gets transferred to the surface when an electromagnetic wave is entirely absorbed by it. The rate at which momentum is transmitted to an absorbing surface perpendicular to the propagation direction equals the force on the surface.
The average value of the rate of momentum transfer divided by the absorbing area represents the average force...
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Generating Electromagnetic Radiations01:10

Generating Electromagnetic Radiations

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The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. Starting in 1887, he performed a series of experiments that confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves and verified that they travel at the speed of light. Hertz used an alternating-current RLC (resistor-inductor-capacitor) circuit that resonated at a known frequency and connected it to a loop of wire. High voltages induced across the gap in...
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Momentum And Radiation Pressure01:20

Momentum And Radiation Pressure

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An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the direction of propagation of the wave. This force occurs because electromagnetic waves contain and transport momentum. The force accounts for the wave's radiation pressure exerted on the object. Maxwell's prediction was confirmed in 1903 by Nichols and Hull by precisely measuring radiation pressures with a torsion balance. The measuring instrument had mirrors suspended from a fiber kept inside a glass container.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 10, 2026

Customizing a Cryolite Glass Prosthetic Eye
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Immediate Two-Stage Prosthetic Breast Reconstruction Failure: Radiation Is Not the Only Culprit.

Thomas C Lam1,2, Robert Borotkanics1,2, Frank Hsieh1,2

  • 1Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; and Auckland, New Zealand.

Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
|May 12, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Immediate two-stage breast reconstruction is safe with adjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Postmastectomy radiation therapy doubles prosthesis loss risk but remains an option in multidisciplinary settings.

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Area of Science:

  • Oncology
  • Plastic Surgery
  • Reconstructive Surgery

Background:

  • Immediate prosthetic breast reconstruction offers good aesthetic outcomes and patient satisfaction.
  • Adjuvant therapies like chemotherapy and radiotherapy post-mastectomy raise concerns for immediate reconstruction due to risks of implant loss and infection.
  • This study evaluates outcomes of immediate two-stage prosthetic breast reconstruction in patients receiving adjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To assess the safety and outcomes of immediate two-stage prosthetic breast reconstruction in patients undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy.
  • To identify risk factors associated with prosthesis loss in this patient population.

Main Methods:

  • Retrospective cohort study of 452 patients (562 breasts) between 1998 and 2010.
  • Two-stage reconstruction involved temporary expander followed by silicone implant.
  • Complications (prosthesis loss, seroma, infection) and cosmetic results were analyzed, with 114 patients receiving radiotherapy with an expander in situ.

Main Results:

  • Overall prosthesis loss rate was 2.7%, increasing to 5.3% with chemotherapy and 11.3% with chemotherapy plus radiotherapy.
  • Both chemotherapy and radiotherapy were significant independent risk factors for expander or implant loss.
  • Combination therapy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy showed a significant increase in prosthesis loss.

Conclusions:

  • Postmastectomy radiation therapy significantly increases prosthesis loss risk compared to chemotherapy alone.
  • Immediate two-stage prosthetic breast reconstruction can be an acceptable option even with adjuvant therapies, provided it is managed in a multidisciplinary setting.
  • Findings help inform patient counseling regarding treatment risks and options.