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Urinary Bladder

Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that temporarily stores urine before it is expelled from the body. It can hold approximately 600 mL of urine prior to micturition. The bladder is retroperitoneal and located behind the pubic symphysis in the pelvic floor.
In males, the bladder is situated in front of the rectum, while in females, it is positioned anterior to the vagina and uterus. The bladder floor contains an inverted triangular area called the trigone, defined by the two ureteric...

Anatomy of the Genitourinary System II: Bladder and Urethra

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The lower urinary system consists of the urinary bladder and urethra, which are essential in storing and expelling urine from the body. Together with the internal and external sphincters, these structures work together to regulate urination effectively.Anatomy of the BladderThe urinary bladder is a muscular, stretchable organ behind the pubic bone and in front of the rectum. In females, the bladder is positioned anterior to the vagina and inferior to the uterus, while in males, it is located...

Imaging Studies I: Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder Studies

Imaging Studies I: Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder Studies

Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder (KUB) StudiesKidney, Ureter, and Bladder (KUB) studies are standard diagnostic imaging procedures used to assess the anatomy of the urinary system. They are commonly utilized for patients experiencing abdominal pain or urinary symptoms. By using a simple X-ray of the abdomen, KUB studies can reveal structural and pathological abnormalities within the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. These studies are particularly valuable in diagnosing kidney stones, urinary...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

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Kidney Structure

Kidney Structure

The kidneys are two large bean-shaped organs located in the upper abdomen. They filter the blood several times a day to remove toxins and rebalance water and electrolytes of the circulatory system via the renal veins. The kidneys receive blood directly from the heart via the renal arteries. These arteries enter the kidney at the hilum, the concave surface of the bean, where they branch and divide into smaller vessels and capillaries.

Filtration and Urine Formation

Filtration and Urine Formation

The function of the kidneys is to filter, reabsorb, secrete, and excrete. Every day the kidneys filter nearly 180 liters of blood, initially removing water and solutes but ultimately returning nearly all filtrates into circulation with the help of osmoregulatory hormones. This process removes wastes and toxins but is also crucial to maintain water and electrolyte levels. Most of these functions are performed by the tiny but numerous nephrons contained within the kidneys.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 10, 2026

Fixation of Ultrasound Transducers for Spinal Cord Neuromodulation in Mice

Fixation of Ultrasound Transducers for Spinal Cord Neuromodulation in Mice

Published on: August 1, 2025

What Is New in Neuromodulation for Overactive Bladder?

Manuela Tutolo¹, Enrico Ammirati², Frank Van der Aa³

¹Department of Urology, URI, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy.

European Urology Focus

|May 19, 2018

Summary

Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation (PTNS) and sacral nerve modulation (SNM) effectively treat overactive bladder (OAB) symptoms. Both methods are safe, with PTNS offering a less invasive option with quicker results and fewer side effects.

Keywords:

Lower urinary tract dysfunction Overactive bladder Sacral neuromodulation Tibial nerve stimulation

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Area of Science:

Urology
Neuromodulation

Background:

Overactive bladder (OAB) significantly impacts quality of life.
Conservative treatments often fail to resolve OAB symptoms.
Neuromodulation offers alternative therapeutic strategies for refractory OAB.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation (PTNS) and sacral nerve modulation (SNM) for OAB.
To compare outcomes of PTNS and SNM in patients with OAB unresponsive to conservative care.

Main Methods:

Systematic review of randomized controlled trials published between 1998 and 2017.
Inclusion criteria: English language, ≥20 adult patients, specific follow-up durations for PTNS (12 weeks) and SNM (6 months).
Focused on studies assessing therapeutic success rates and adverse events.

Main Results:

Therapeutic success rates ranged from 61% to 90% for SNM and 54% to 79% for PTNS.
Both PTNS and SNM demonstrated significant efficacy in managing OAB symptoms.
No life-threatening adverse effects were reported for either treatment modality.

Conclusions:

Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation and sacral nerve modulation are effective and safe treatment options for patients with refractory OAB.
PTNS presents a less invasive approach with rapid symptom relief and a favorable side effect profile.
Both neuromodulation techniques provide valuable therapeutic alternatives for OAB management.