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The human heart is made up of three layers of tissue that are surrounded by the pericardium, a membrane that protects and confines the heart. The outermost layer, closest to the pericardium, is the epicardium. The pericardial cavity separates the pericardium from the epicardium. Beneath the epicardium is the myocardium, the middle layer, and the endocardium, the innermost layer. There are four chambers of the heart: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
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The heart is a hollow, muscular organ approximately the size of a fist, consisting of four chambers. It is enclosed in the pericardium, a fibrous sac with two layers: the visceral and parietal pericardium, separated by a fluid-filled space containing serous fluid to reduce friction.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 8, 2026

An Intestinal Gut Organ Culture System for Analyzing Host-Microbiota Interactions
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An Intestinal Gut Organ Culture System for Analyzing Host-Microbiota Interactions

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[Heart-gut interactions].

Claudio Borghi1, Enrico Strocchi1

  • 1Cattedra di Medicina Interna, Dipartimento Cardio-Toraco-Vascolare, Università degli Studi, Bologna.

Giornale Italiano Di Cardiologia (2006)
|June 19, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This review explores the heart-gut connection, linking digestive issues like reflux to heart conditions such as atrial fibrillation. It also covers how gut microbiota impacts atherosclerosis, hypertension, and heart failure.

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Area of Science:

  • Cardiology and Gastroenterology
  • Microbiome Research

Background:

  • Established links between cardiac and digestive systems, including pain pathophysiology.
  • Emerging evidence on gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and atrial fibrillation (AF) causality.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the known heart-gut interactions.
  • To incorporate recent findings on intestinal microbiota's role in cardiovascular diseases.
  • To discuss the link between reflux and AF.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of existing studies.
  • Synthesis of recent research on gut microbiota and cardiovascular health.
  • Analysis of pathophysiological mechanisms.

Main Results:

  • Digestive system pathologies can manifest as cardiac pain.
  • Gastroesophageal reflux may contribute to atrial fibrillation onset.
  • Intestinal microbiota dysbiosis is implicated in atherosclerosis, hypertension, and heart failure.

Conclusions:

  • The heart-gut axis is a critical area for understanding cardiovascular disease.
  • Intestinal microbiota represents a novel therapeutic target for cardiovascular conditions.
  • Further research into the gut-cardiac interplay is warranted.