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Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Psycholinguistics
  • Neuroscience

Background:

  • Comprehenders are known to predict upcoming language, but the precise nature of prediction and its supporting evidence remain debated.
  • Distinguishing prediction from language integration is a key challenge in understanding language processing.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To define language prediction and explore the mechanisms underlying it.
  • To propose and support a theory of prediction-by-production as a primary mechanism for language prediction.

Main Methods:

  • Theoretical proposal of prediction-by-production.
  • Review of evidence from electrophysiological, eye-tracking, and behavioral studies.
  • Analysis of reading, spoken language processing, speech processing, and dialogue research.

Main Results:

  • Prediction occurs across all linguistic levels, from semantics to form.
  • Prediction-by-production, involving covert imitation and intention representation, is proposed as a key mechanism.
  • This mechanism is optional and its use varies among different comprehenders (e.g., non-native speakers, children, older adults).

Conclusions:

  • Prediction-by-production is an effective but resource-intensive mechanism for anticipating upcoming language.
  • Associative mechanisms augment prediction-by-production, especially when resources are limited.
  • The findings are supported by diverse empirical evidence from various language processing domains.