Calcium-Ion Batteries: Current State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives

Recent developments in rechargeable battery technology have seen a shift from the well-established Li-ion technology to new chemistries to achieve the high energy density required for extended range electric vehicles and other portable applications, as well as low-cost alternatives for stationary storage. These chemistries include Li-air, Li-S, and multivalent ion technologies including Mg²⁺ , Zn²⁺ , Ca²⁺ , and Al³⁺ . While Mg²⁺ battery systems have been increasingly investigated in the last few years, Ca²⁺ technology has only recently been recognized as a viable option. In this first comprehensive review of Ca²⁺ ion technology, the use of Ca metal anodes, alternative alloy anodes, electrolytes suitable for this system, and cathode material development are discussed. The advantages and disadvantages of Ca²⁺ ion batteries including prospective achievable energy density, cost reduction due to high natural abundance, low ion mobility, the effect of ion size, and the need for elevated temperature operation are reviewed. The use of density functional theory modeling to predict the properties of Ca-ion battery materials is discussed and the extent to which this approach is successful in directing research into areas of promise is evaluated. To conclude, a summary of recent achievements is presented and areas for future research efforts evaluated.