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Related Concept Videos

Absolute Value Inequalities01:23

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The absolute value is a mathematical tool that represents the distance of a number from zero on the number line, regardless of its sign. In the context of inequalities, absolute value expressions help define a range of permissible values or boundaries for a variable. These inequalities are commonly used in scientific modeling and data interpretation, where variability within or beyond a certain threshold must be captured precisely.An absolute value inequality of the form ∣x∣ ≤...
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Inequalities express mathematical relationships where two values are not equal and are compared using symbols such as <, >, ≤, or ≥. These expressions define a range of possible solutions rather than a single value. Interval notation provides a concise way to express these solution sets, especially when the variable spans a continuous range. An open interval, written as (a, b), excludes the endpoints, while a closed interval [a, b] includes them. There are also half-open...
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The graph of the equation where y equals x squared forms a curve known as a parabola. This curve acts as a boundary in the coordinate plane, dividing it into distinct regions based on the relative position of points.When the equality sign in the equation is replaced with an inequality—such as greater than, less than, greater than or equal to, or less than or equal to—the graphical representation changes from a single curve into a broader shaded area that signifies the set of all...
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Updated: Feb 6, 2026

The Other End of the Leash: An Experimental Test to Analyze How Owners Interact with Their Pet Dogs
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Inequity aversion in dogs: a review.

Jim McGetrick1,2, Friederike Range3,4

  • 1Comparative Cognition Unit, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Medical University of Vienna & University of Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria. Jim.McGetrick@vetmeduni.ac.at.

Learning & Behavior
|August 15, 2018
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Summary

Dogs show inequity aversion, particularly when unrewarded alongside a rewarded partner. This review critically evaluates evidence and discusses underlying mechanisms and functions in dogs and other species.

Keywords:
CooperationDogInequity Aversion

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Area of Science:

  • Comparative Psychology
  • Animal Behavior

Background:

  • Inequity aversion, first studied in capuchin monkeys, has been investigated in numerous species.
  • Domestic dogs exhibit a unique pattern, reacting to unequal rewards but not reward quality.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review and critically assess existing research on inequity aversion in dogs.
  • To discuss the underlying mechanisms and ultimate functions of inequity aversion in dogs, contextualized with other species.

Main Methods:

  • Synthesis of data from three tasks and seven peer-reviewed publications involving over 140 dogs.
  • Critical evaluation of published studies on canine inequity aversion.

Main Results:

  • Dogs do not respond to inequity in reward quality but do react negatively when unrewarded while a partner receives a reward.
  • Over 140 dogs have been tested, making them a well-studied species in this field.

Conclusions:

  • Dogs provide valuable insights into inequity aversion across species.
  • Further research is needed on the mechanisms and functions of inequity aversion in dogs.