Noise shapes the distribution pattern of an acoustic predator

Noise, an obvious effect of urbanization, has a negative impact on animal vocalizations and the hunting efficiency of acoustic predators. However, the influence of noise pollution on the spatial distribution of populations remains understudied. The aim was to assess the factors shaping the distribution pattern of an acoustic predator (long-eared owl Asio otus) in an urban-farmland matrix. We hypothesized that the probability of an acoustic predator occurring decreases with growing nocturnal noise emission. This owl survey was conducted in Kraków (S Poland) on 79 randomly selected sample plots (1 km × 1 km). Six habitat variables (area of parks, woodlands, grassland, arable land, habitat diversity index, and noise pollution) were identified and correlated with the probability of the species' occurrence. Proximity to pedestrian routes and roads, habitat fragmentation, and noise intensity was also defined at nest sites and random sites. Long-eared owls occurred on 37% of the sample plots. Occupied plots had a greater area of grassland and arable land as well as a lower level of noise pollution than the unoccupied ones. A multivariate model revealed that area of grassland and nocturnal noise emission was significantly correlated with the probability of long-eared owls occurring and that the high probability of occurrence recorded on plots with large areas of grassland was reduced by noise pollution. The noise intensity recorded at nest sites was also significantly lower than at random sites. This study suggests that apart from habitat factors, the distribution of acoustic predators in an urban matrix is driven by noise pollution. This highlights the importance of proper landscape management, that is, maintaining large grassland areas and preventing noise from increasing within them.