What, Why, Where, and When: Bringing Timing to Immuno-Oncology

A plethora of new cancer immunotherapies are under clinical development individually and in combination for a wide variety of indications, but optimizing therapeutic outcomes will require precise consideration of timing in treatment schedule design. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the temporal rhythms of the anticancer immune response. Lessons learned in preclinical and clinical studies begin to define a framework for incorporating duration and sequencing into immunotherapy. We also discuss key challenges and opportunities for translation of temporally programmed treatment schedules to the clinic, including alignment of immunological timescales in preclinical models and humans, and the use of current and emerging biomarkers.