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In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective. 
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Related Experiment Video

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The consequences of an introgression event.

Nicholas H Barton1

  • 1IST Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria.

Molecular Ecology
|January 2, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Insecticide resistance alleles introgression in mosquitoes initially boosted linked genes. However, many of these genes later declined, possibly due to chance rather than counter-selection.

Area of Science:

  • Population genetics
  • Molecular ecology
  • Insecticide resistance

Background:

  • Investigates the genetic impact of introducing an insecticide resistance allele into a mosquito population.
  • Examines the dynamics of linked alleles following introgression.

Discussion:

  • Analyzes the initial increase and subsequent decline of linked alleles.
  • Discusses the difficulty in distinguishing between counter-selection and random genetic drift as causes for allele decline.

Key Insights:

  • Introgression of a beneficial allele can have complex, non-linear effects on linked genetic regions.
  • Stochastic processes, like genetic drift, may play a significant role in the long-term fate of linked alleles.

Outlook:

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  • Highlights the need for advanced population genetic models to disentangle selection from drift.
  • Suggests further research into the fitness costs and benefits associated with insecticide resistance alleles and their linked genetic background.