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Frustration occurs when people are obstructed or prevented from achieving a desired goal or fulfilling a perceived need. For example, when someone's input is ignored in a discussion, it can lead to feelings of frustration. Conflict, however, arises from opposing interests, goals, or actions. Conflicts can take various forms based on the nature of these opposing desires or goals.
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Updated: Jan 30, 2026

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Rehabilitative devices for a top-down approach.

Giovanni Morone1,2, Grazia Fernanda Spitoni3,4, Daniela De Bartolo2,3

  • 1a Private Inpatient Unit , Santa Lucia foundation IRCCS , Rome , Italy.

Expert Review of Medical Devices
|January 25, 2019
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Summary

Neurorehabilitation now uses a top-down approach, stimulating the brain directly for motor relearning. Innovative technologies like virtual reality and brain-computer interfaces support this modern therapeutic strategy.

Keywords:
Top-down approachbottom-up approachcognitive-motor rehabilitationneurorehabilitationtechnological devices

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Rehabilitation Technology
  • Cognitive Science

Background:

  • Neurorehabilitation has shifted from 'bottom-up' to 'top-down' approaches.
  • This paradigm shift influences the development of technological devices for motor and cognitive recovery.
  • Top-down approaches directly stimulate the brain to promote plasticity-mediated motor relearning.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review innovative technological devices supporting top-down neurorehabilitation.
  • To explore the application of serious exergames, virtual reality, robots, brain-computer interfaces, rhythmic music, and biofeedback.
  • To assess how these technologies align with current neuroscientific and neurocognitive findings.

Main Methods:

  • Unsystematic review of recent scientific literature.
  • Focus on technological devices for motor and cognitive rehabilitation.
  • Analysis based on top-down neurorehabilitation principles.

Main Results:

  • Identified several promising technological devices for top-down neurorehabilitation.
  • Explored the potential of serious exergames, VR, robotics, BCIs, music, and biofeedback.
  • Highlighted the integration of motor and cognitive systems in rehabilitation.

Conclusions:

  • Innovative technologies offer a potentially greater positive effect than conventional therapies in motor-cognitive rehabilitation.
  • The integration of advanced technologies supports the top-down approach in neurorehabilitation.
  • Future research should focus on the efficacy of these technologies.