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Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Chemical substances interact in many different ways. Certain chemical reactions exhibit common patterns of reactivity. Due to the vast number of chemical reactions, it becomes necessary to classify them based on the observed patterns of interaction.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

α-Hydroxy Ketones via Reductive Coupling of Esters: Acyloin Condensation Overview

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The pinacol and McMurry reactions involve the reductive coupling of ketones or aldehydes. Similarly, the bimolecular reductive coupling of two ester molecules in the presence of sodium metal in an aprotic solvent yields an α-hydroxy ketone product. The α-hydroxy ketone is also called acyloin, so the reaction is referred to as ‘acyloin condensation.’

Atomic Orbitals

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

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The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are also observed. The attractive and repulsive forces are dependent on the distance between the particles, as well as the sign and magnitude of the charges on the individual particles. When the charges on the particles are opposite, they attract each other. If both particles have the same charge, they repel each other.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Synthesis and Performance Characterizations of Transition Metal Single Atom Catalyst for Electrochemical CO2 Reduction

Synthesis and Performance Characterizations of Transition Metal Single Atom Catalyst for Electrochemical CO2 Reduction

Published on: April 10, 2018

Aqueous CO₂ Reduction with High Efficiency Using α-Co(OH)₂ -Supported Atomic Ir Electrocatalysts.

Xiaofu Sun^1,2, Chunjun Chen^1,2, Shoujie Liu³

¹Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, CAS Laboratory of Colloid and Interface and Thermodynamics, CAS Research/Education Center for Excellence in Molecular Sciences, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, P. R. China.

Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. in English)

|February 8, 2019

Summary

Atomic iridium electrocatalysts on cobalt hydroxide efficiently convert carbon dioxide (CO2) into carbon monoxide (CO). This breakthrough offers a highly active and stable method for sustainable energy storage and artificial carbon cycling.

Keywords:

carbon dioxide electrocatalysis green chemistry metal single sites renewable energy

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Photopatterning Proteins and Cells in Aqueous Environment Using TiO2 Photocatalysis

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Published on: October 26, 2015

Area of Science:

Electrochemistry
Materials Science
Catalysis
Sustainable Energy

Background:

Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) is crucial for sustainable energy storage and creating an artificial carbon cycle.
Developing efficient electrocatalysts is key to converting CO2 into valuable chemical feedstocks and fuels.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the use of atomic iridium (Ir) as an electrocatalyst for CO2 reduction.
To evaluate the performance of atomic Ir supported on α-cobalt hydroxide (α-Co(OH)2) for CO2 electroreduction.

Main Methods:

Electrochemical synthesis of atomic Ir electrocatalyst supported on α-Co(OH)2.
Electrocatalytic performance testing in aqueous electrolyte for CO2 reduction.
Characterization of the catalyst's electrochemical active surface area and conductivity.

Main Results:

Achieved a high faradaic efficiency of 97.6% for CO production.
Obtained a record turnover frequency (TOF) of 38290 h⁻¹ for CO2 reduction.
The α-Co(OH)2 support significantly increased the electrochemical active area and conductivity compared to Ir nanoparticles.

Conclusions:

Atomic Ir electrocatalysts supported on α-Co(OH)2 demonstrate superior activity and stability for CO2 reduction.
The enhanced performance is attributed to increased electrochemical active area, improved conductivity, and efficient stabilization of the CO2 radical anion intermediate.
This work presents a promising pathway for efficient electrochemical CO2 conversion.