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For transition metal complexes, the coordination number determines the geometry around the central metal ion. Table 1 compares coordination numbers to molecular geometry. The most common structures of the complexes in coordination compounds are octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar.
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In most main group element compounds, the valence electrons of the isolated atoms combine to form chemical bonds that satisfy the octet rule. For instance, the four valence electrons of carbon overlap with electrons from four hydrogen atoms to form CH4. The one valence electron leaves sodium and adds to the seven valence electrons of chlorine to form the ionic formula unit NaCl (Figure 1a). Transition metals do not normally bond in this fashion. They primarily form coordinate covalent bonds, a...
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The structure of a crystalline solid, whether a metal or not, is best described by considering its simplest repeating unit, which is referred to as its unit cell. The unit cell consists of lattice points that represent the locations of atoms or ions. The entire structure then consists of this unit cell repeating in three dimensions. The three different types of unit cells present in the cubic lattice are illustrated in Figure 1.
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Synovial joints are the most common type of joint in the body. A key structural characteristic for a synovial joint is the presence of a joint cavity. This fluid-filled space is where the articulating surfaces of the bones contact each other. Also, unlike fibrous or cartilaginous joints, the articulating bone surfaces at a synovial joint are not directly connected to each other with fibrous connective tissue or cartilage. This gives the bones of a synovial joint the ability to move smoothly...
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Fibrous joints are a type of joint where the bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue. These joints provide stability and minimal to no movement between the articulating bones. There are three types of fibrous joints.
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Inter-joint coordination patterns differ between younger and older runners.

Kathryn Harrison1, Yong Ung Kwon2, Adam Sima3

  • 1Department of Physical Therapy, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.

Human Movement Science
|February 10, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Older runners exhibit distinct joint coordination strategies during midstance, potentially as protective adaptations. These biomechanical differences may influence performance in older athletes.

Keywords:
AgingAnkleBiomechanicsHipKnee

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Gerontology
  • Sports Medicine

Background:

  • Aging impacts running biomechanics, increasing injury risk in older runners.
  • Previous studies may have overlooked age-related coordination differences by averaging data.
  • Joints may compensate for age-related changes in running gait.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare inter-joint coordination strategies in young (under 30) and older (over 60) male runners.
  • To identify age-specific differences in running biomechanics during the stance phase.

Main Methods:

  • Twelve young and 12 older male runners ran on an instrumented treadmill at a consistent speed (3.35 m/s).
  • Measured ankle, tibia, knee, and hip motion in multiple planes.
  • Calculated inter-joint coordination using a modified vector coding technique and compared patterns between groups.

Main Results:

  • Older runners showed in-phase ankle propulsion and in-phase knee-hip collapse patterns during midstance.
  • Younger runners employed an out-of-phase strategy for knee-hip coordination.
  • Ankle-hip frontal plane coordination also differed, with older runners using an in-phase collapse pattern.

Conclusions:

  • Older runners display altered joint coordination during midstance, suggesting adaptive biomechanical changes.
  • These coordination differences may have implications for running performance and injury prevention in older adults.