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Related Concept Videos

Scalar Product (Dot Product)01:11

Scalar Product (Dot Product)

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The scalar multiplication of two vectors is known as the scalar or dot product. As the name indicates, the scalar product of two vectors results in a number, that is, a scalar quantity. Scalar products are used to define work and energy relations. For example, the work that a force (a vector) performs on an object while causing its displacement (a vector) is defined as a scalar product of the force vector with the displacement vector.
The scalar product of two vectors is obtained by multiplying...
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Vector Product (Cross Product)01:17

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Vector multiplication of two vectors yields a vector product, with the magnitude equal to the product of the individual vectors multiplied by the sine of the angle between both the vectors and the direction perpendicular to both the individual vectors. As there are always two directions perpendicular to a given plane, one on each side, the direction of the vector product is governed by the right-hand thumb rule.
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Wood Products01:21

Wood Products

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Wood products encompass a broad range of materials crafted from wood strands, veneers, lumber, and even waste wood-like shreds, designed for both structural and nonstructural purposes. Various specialized wood products have been developed to enhance strength, durability, and versatility in building applications.
Glue-laminated wood, often referred to as glulam, combines multiple smaller pieces of dimensional lumber using adhesives to form a single, larger piece. Cross-laminated timber consists...
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Dot Product01:29

Dot Product

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The dot product is an essential concept in mathematics and physics.
In engineering, the dot product of any two vectors is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. It is denoted by a dot symbol between the two vectors.
Consider a vehicle pulling an object along the ground using a rope. If the rope makes an angle with the horizontal axis, the work done can be calculated using the dot product of the force applied and the object's displacement.
The dot...
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Cross Product01:25

Cross Product

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The cross product is a fundamental concept in vector algebra that is a vector operation on two different vectors to obtain a third vector. Unlike the scalar product, the cross product results in a vector quantity perpendicular to both the original vectors.
The magnitude of the cross product is obtained by multiplying the magnitude of both the vectors and the sine of the angle between them. This means that a larger angle between the vectors will lead to a greater magnitude of the cross product.
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Primary Production01:06

Primary Production

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The total amount of energy acquired by primary producers in an ecosystem is called gross primary production (GPP). However, of this energy, producers use some for metabolic processes, and some is lost as heat, decreasing the amount of energy available to the next trophic level. The remaining usable amount of energy is called the net primary productivity (NPP). In terrestrial ecosystems, NPP is driven by climate, while light penetration and nutrient availability drive NPP in aquatic ecosystems.
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Updated: Jan 28, 2026

RNAi-mediated Control of Aflatoxins in Peanut: Method to Analyze Mycotoxin Production and Transgene Expression in the Peanut/Aspergillus Pathosystem
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Aflatoxin Production in Khoa.

A F Lembhe1, B Ranganathan1, M V Ramana Rao1

  • 1Division of Dairy Bacteriology, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132 001 (Haryana), India.

Journal of Food Protection
|March 7, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Aspergillus species produce aflatoxins in khoa, a dairy product. These toxins can penetrate up to 4 cm deep in khoa stored at warmer temperatures (28-37°C).

Area of Science:

  • Food Microbiology
  • Mycology
  • Food Safety

Background:

  • Aspergillus species are known producers of mycotoxins, including aflatoxins.
  • Khoa, a traditional Indian dairy product, can be susceptible to microbial contamination.
  • Aflatoxin contamination poses a significant food safety risk.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus in khoa.
  • To determine the depth of aflatoxin penetration in khoa under different temperature conditions.

Main Methods:

  • Inoculation of khoa samples with Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999 and Aspergillus flavus K3.
  • Incubation of inoculated khoa samples at three temperatures: 5°C, 28°C, and 37°C for two weeks.
  • Analysis of aflatoxin penetration depth in khoa samples.

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Main Results:

  • Aflatoxin production was observed in khoa inoculated with the tested Aspergillus species.
  • Significant aflatoxin penetration occurred in khoa samples incubated at 28°C and 37°C.
  • Aflatoxin was found to penetrate to a depth of 4 cm in khoa stored at 28°C and 37°C.

Conclusions:

  • Warmer storage temperatures (28°C and 37°C) promote aflatoxin penetration in khoa.
  • Khoa stored under ambient or warm conditions is at risk of deep aflatoxin contamination.
  • Food safety measures should consider temperature control during khoa storage to prevent mycotoxin accumulation.