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When one or more data points appear far from the rest of the data, there is a need to determine whether they are outliers and whether they should be eliminated from the data set to ensure an accurate representation of the measured value. In many cases, outliers arise from gross errors (or human errors) and do not accurately reflect the underlying phenomenon. In some cases, however, these apparent outliers reflect true phenomenological differences. In these cases, we can use statistical methods...
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Updated: Jan 27, 2026

A Photonic System for Generating Unconditional Polarization-Entangled Photons Based on Multiple Quantum Interference
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Few-photon detection using InAs avalanche photodiodes.

Chee Hing Tan, Anton Velichko, Leh Woon Lim

    Optics Express
    |March 17, 2019
    PubMed
    Summary

    Indium arsenide (InAs) avalanche photodiodes with negligible excess noise were demonstrated, enabling detection of extremely low light levels. These devices show significant potential for single-photon detection at infrared wavelengths.

    Area of Science:

    • Optoelectronics
    • Semiconductor Devices
    • Photonics

    Background:

    • Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) with a ratio of hole-to-electron ionization coefficients (k) equal to 0 exhibit negligible excess noise, ideal for low-light detection.
    • Indium arsenide (InAs) is a material with potential for infrared optoelectronic applications.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To demonstrate InAs avalanche photodiodes with high quantum efficiency and low noise operation.
    • To assess the capability of these InAs APDs for detecting very low photon flux levels.

    Main Methods:

    • Fabrication and characterization of InAs avalanche photodiodes.
    • Measurement of external quantum efficiency, dark current, and avalanche gain at 77 K.
    • Photon counting measurements using a pulsed laser at 1550 nm wavelength.

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    Main Results:

    • Achieved 60% external quantum efficiency at 3.48 µm without antireflection coating.
    • Observed low dark current, high avalanche gain, and negligible excess noise at 77 K due to k=0 in InAs.
    • Successfully detected 15-31 photons per 50 µs laser pulse at 1550 nm, corresponding to 19-40 fW average power.

    Conclusions:

    • InAs avalanche photodiodes with k=0 offer a low-noise platform for sensitive optical detection.
    • These devices demonstrate the potential for single or few-photon level detection at wavelengths of 1550 nm and longer.
    • System noise reduction is key to fully realizing the potential of InAs APDs for ultra-low light detection.