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Related Concept Videos

Data Collection by Observations01:08

Data Collection by Observations

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Data collection refers to a systematic way of obtaining, observing, measuring, and analyzing accurate information. Observational studies are one of the most widely used methods of data collection. It involves collecting data by observing the behavior and physical characteristics of a sample without making any modifications to the sample.
An astronomer viewing the motion and brightness of stars in the sky and recording the data is an example of observational data collection. A botanist recording...
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Weak Base Solutions03:21

Weak Base Solutions

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Some compounds produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by chemically reacting with water molecules. In all cases, these compounds react only partially and so are classified as weak bases. These types of compounds are also abundant in nature and important commodities in various technologies. For example, global production of the weak base ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons annually, being widely used as an agricultural fertilizer, a raw material for chemical synthesis of other...
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Weak Acid Solutions04:02

Weak Acid Solutions

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Few compounds act as strong acids. A far greater number of compounds behave as weak acids and only partially react with water, leaving a large majority of dissolved molecules in their original form and generating a relatively small amount of hydronium ions. Weak acids are commonly encountered in nature, being the substances partly responsible for the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation of insect bites, and the unpleasant smells associated with body odor. A familiar example of a...
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Titration of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base01:08

Titration of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base

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Weak acids and bases do not undergo dissociation completely, and titrations between these two are rarely studied. When such studies are performed, say, for the titration of a weak acid with a weak base, the titration curve plots the change in pH as a function of the volume of base added. Take the titration of acetic acid with ammonia, for instance. During the titration, these two species form ammonium acetate and water, but the pH change is slow and gradual.
As a result, there is no simple...
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Titration Calculations: Weak Acid - Strong Base03:55

Titration Calculations: Weak Acid - Strong Base

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Calculating pH for Titration Solutions: Weak Acid/Strong Base
For the titration of 25.00 mL of 0.100 M CH3CO2H with 0.100 M NaOH, the reaction can be represented as:
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Naturalistic Observations02:30

Naturalistic Observations

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If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways if they know they are being observed. How do researchers obtain accurate information when people tend to hide their natural behavior? As an example, imagine that your professor asks everyone in your class to raise their hand if they always wash their hands after using the restroom. Chances...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 26, 2026

Digital Inline Holographic Microscopy DIHM of Weakly-scattering Subjects
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Digital Inline Holographic Microscopy DIHM of Weakly-scattering Subjects

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Observationally Weak TGFs in the RHESSI Data.

K H Albrechtsen1, N Østgaard1, N Berge2

  • 1Birkeland Centre for Space Science, Department of Physics and Technology University of Bergen Bergen Norway.

Journal of Geophysical Research. Atmospheres : JGR
|April 23, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Researchers discovered faint terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) using lightning detection data. This suggests TGF production rates are higher than previously reported, with a preference for coastal regions.

Keywords:
LightningRHESSIhard radiationobservationally weakterrestrial gamma‐ray flahesthunderstorms

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Area of Science:

  • Atmospheric Physics
  • High-Energy Astrophysics
  • Geophysics

Background:

  • Terrestrial gamma ray flashes (TGFs) are brief, intense gamma-ray emissions linked to thunderstorms.
  • Detecting faint TGFs is challenging due to their low signal intensity and short duration.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To identify previously undetected, faint TGFs in Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) data.
  • To expand the understanding of TGF occurrence rates and geographical distribution.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized the simultaneity of lightning detections from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) with RHESSI data.
  • Analyzed an expanded dataset encompassing all available RHESSI and WWLLN data.
  • Developed a method to detect TGFs below the standard RHESSI detection threshold.

Main Results:

  • Identified a significant population of observationally weak TGFs, down to 0.22 of the RHESSI detection threshold.
  • Observed that these weak TGFs are often produced farther from the subsatellite point or at higher latitudes, leading to increased atmospheric attenuation.
  • Found that TGFs show a preference for occurring over ocean and coastal regions compared to land.

Conclusions:

  • The TGF production rate is likely higher than currently estimated.
  • TGFs exhibit distinct geographical preferences, favoring oceanic and coastal areas.
  • The study enhances our ability to detect and characterize faint TGF events.