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Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Measurement & Analysis of the Temporal Discrimination Threshold Applied to Cervical Dystonia
Published on: January 27, 2018
Update on current and emerging therapies for dystonia
Karlo J Lizarraga1, Duha Al-Shorafat1, Susan Fox1
1The Edmond J Safra Program in Parkinson's Disease & the Morton & Gloria Shulman Movement Disorders Clinic, Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, M5T2S8 ON, Canada.
Abstract:
Treatment strategies for dystonia depend on the focal, segmental or generalized distribution of symptoms. Chemodenervation with botulinum toxin remains the treatment of choice for focal- or select-body regions in generalized and segmental dystonia. A potentially longer acting formulation of botulinum toxin is being investigated besides the currently available formulations. Electromyography increases toxin injection accuracy and may reduce injection number, frequency, side effects and costs by identifying dystonic muscle activity. Oral anticholinergics, baclofen and clonazepam are used off-label, but novel drugs in development include sodium oxybate, zonisamide and perampanel. Characterizing dystonia as a sensorimotor circuit disorder has prompted the use of noninvasive neuromodulation procedures. These techniques need further study but simultaneous rehabilitation techniques appear to also improve outcomes. Pallidal deep-brain stimulation is beneficial for medication-refractory primary generalized and possibly focal dystonia such as cervical dystonia. Certain genetic conditions are amenable to specific therapies and future gene-targeted therapies could benefit selected dystonia patients.
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