Cardiac tissue engineering: state-of-the-art methods and outlook

The purpose of this review is to assess the state-of-the-art fabrication methods, advances in genome editing, and the use of machine learning to shape the prospective growth in cardiac tissue engineering. Those interdisciplinary emerging innovations would move forward basic research in this field and their clinical applications. The long-entrenched challenges in this field could be addressed by novel 3-dimensional (3D) scaffold substrates for cardiomyocyte (CM) growth and maturation. Stem cell-based therapy through genome editing techniques can repair gene mutation, control better maturation of CMs or even reveal its molecular clock. Finally, machine learning and precision control for improvements of the construct fabrication process and optimization in tissue-specific clonal selections with an outlook of cardiac tissue engineering are also presented.