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Plant Hormones

Plant Hormones

Plant hormones—or phytohormones—are chemical molecules that modulate one or more physiological processes of a plant. In animals, hormones are often produced in specific glands and circulated via the circulatory system. However, plants lack hormone-producing glands.

Tonicity in Plants

Tonicity in Plants

Tonicity describes the capacity of a cell to lose or gain water. It depends on the quantity of solute that does not penetrate the membrane. Tonicity delimits the magnitude and direction of osmosis and results in three possible scenarios that alter the volume of a cell: hypertonicity, hypotonicity, and isotonicity. Due to differences in structure and physiology, tonicity of plant cells is different from that of animal cells in some scenarios.

Plant Cell Wall

Plant Cell Wall

The plant cell wall gives plant cells shape, support, and protection. As a cell matures, its cell wall specializes according to the cell type. For example, the parenchyma cells of leaves possess only a thin, primary cell wall.

Plant Cells and Tissues

Plant Cells and Tissues

Plant tissues are collections of similar cells performing related functions. Different plant tissues will have their own specialized roles and can be combined with other tissues to form organs such as flowers, fruit, stem, and leaves. Two major types of plant tissue include meristematic and permanent tissue.

Plant Breeding and Biotechnology

Plant Breeding and Biotechnology

Crop cultivation has a long history in human civilization, with records showing the cultivation of cereal plants beginning at around 8000 BC. This early plant breeding was developed primarily to provide a steady supply of food.

Meristems and Plant Growth

Meristems and Plant Growth

Plants grow throughout their lives; this is called indeterminate growth, and it distinguishes plants from most animals. Although certain parts of plants stop growing (e.g., leaves and flowers), others grow continuously—like roots and stems.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 21, 2026

A Telemetric, Gravimetric Platform for Real-Time Physiological Phenotyping of Plant–Environment Interactions

A Telemetric, Gravimetric Platform for Real-Time Physiological Phenotyping of Plant–Environment Interactions

Published on: August 5, 2020

Interactions and Coadaptation in Plant Metaorganisms.

M Amine Hassani^1,2, Ezgi Özkurt^1,2, Heike Seybold^1,2

¹Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany;

Annual Review of Phytopathology

|July 27, 2019

Summary

Plants and microbes form metaorganisms, requiring microbial adaptations to plant defenses. Plant immunity shapes microbial communities, influencing host-microbe coevolution and domestication impacts.

Keywords:

community analyses microbial host specialization plant domestication plant microbiota seedborne microbes

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Genetic Manipulation of the Plant Pathogen Ustilago maydis to Study Fungal Biology and Plant Microbe Interactions

Genetic Manipulation of the Plant Pathogen Ustilago maydis to Study Fungal Biology and Plant Microbe Interactions

Published on: September 30, 2016

Area of Science:

Plant biology
Microbiology
Ecology

Background:

Plants associate with diverse microorganisms, forming complex communities.
Some microbes form intimate associations with plants, creating a metaorganism.
Plant immune systems influence microbial community assembly, not just pathogen defense.

Purpose of the Study:

To review factors influencing plant metaorganism assembly and function.
To highlight the role of plant immunity in microbial community structure.
To explore coadaptation between plants and core microorganisms.

Main Methods:

This is a review article, synthesizing existing research.
It discusses theoretical frameworks and proposed mechanisms.
No new experimental data were generated.

Main Results:

Plant immune systems play a crucial role in selecting and structuring associated microbial communities.
Core microorganisms likely coevolve with plant hosts, adapting to plant immunity.
Vertical transmission of microbes via seeds may lead to highly adapted, beneficial symbionts.

Conclusions:

Plant immunity is a key driver of plant-microbe interactions and metaorganism development.
Microbe-microbe interactions within plant tissues are critical but understudied.
Domestication may have altered plant selection for beneficial microbial partners.