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The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna01:15

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State Space Representation

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The frequency-domain technique, commonly used in analyzing and designing feedback control systems, is effective for linear, time-invariant systems. However, it falls short when dealing with nonlinear, time-varying, and multiple-input multiple-output systems. The time-domain or state-space approach addresses these limitations by utilizing state variables to construct simultaneous, first-order differential equations, known as state equations, for an nth-order system.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 21, 2026

A Simple Non-invasive Method for Temporary Knockdown of Upper Limb Proprioception
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A Simple Non-invasive Method for Temporary Knockdown of Upper Limb Proprioception

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Robot-Aided Upper-limb Proprioceptive Training in Three-Dimensional Space.

Bulmaro A Valdes, Mahta Khoshnam, Jason L Neva

    IEEE ... International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics : [Proceedings]
    |August 4, 2019
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Robotic training significantly improved proprioception, the sense of body position. This advancement offers potential for rehabilitation after neural injuries, enhancing daily activities.

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    Area of Science:

    • Neuroscience
    • Robotics
    • Rehabilitation Medicine

    Background:

    • Proprioception is crucial for movement control and daily activities.
    • Neural injuries like stroke can impair proprioception.
    • Robotic platforms offer potential for monitoring and enhancing proprioceptive function.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To investigate if a robotic training protocol enhances end-position reaching proprioception in 3D space.
    • To assess the efficacy of robotic-assisted training for improving proprioceptive sense.

    Main Methods:

    • Six healthy participants trained their dominant hand using a robotic platform for reaching tasks in 3D space without vision.
    • Training involved reaching to targets mimicking self-feeding movements, with visual and haptic feedback provided post-trial.
    • Performance was evaluated pre- and post-training through reaching tasks without sensory feedback.

    Main Results:

    • Significant improvements in reaching accuracy and trajectory smoothness were observed.
    • Average end-position error decreased by 41%.
    • Average index of curvature reduced by 13% post-training.

    Conclusions:

    • Robotic training protocols show potential for improving 3D proprioception.
    • This approach may aid in developing rehabilitation strategies for individuals with impaired proprioception.
    • Enhanced proprioception through robotics could improve functional recovery and daily living activities.