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Updated: Jan 3, 2026

Determination of Reproductive Competence by Confirming Pubertal Onset and Performing a Fertility Assay in Mice and Rats

Determination of Reproductive Competence by Confirming Pubertal Onset and Performing a Fertility Assay in Mice and Rats

Published on: October 13, 2018

Clitoral development in the mouse and human.

Gerald R Cunha¹, Ge Liu¹, Adriane Sinclair¹

¹Department of Urology, University of California, 400 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA.

Differentiation; Research in Biological Diversity

|November 16, 2019

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Mouse and human clitoral development diverge significantly. The mouse clitoris is an internal, estrogen-non-responsive structure, unlike the human clitoris, which is a smaller version of the penis.

Keywords:

Clitoral lamina Clitoris Genital tubercle Preputial lamina Preputial swellings

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Area of Science:

Comparative anatomy
Developmental biology
Reproductive science

Background:

Understanding clitoral development is crucial for reproductive health.
Existing knowledge on comparative clitoral development, especially between mice and humans, is limited.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide the first detailed description of mouse clitoral development.
To compare mouse and human clitoral development.

Main Methods:

Whole-mount microscopy, histology, and immunohistochemistry in mice (gestation day 14 to postnatal day 10).
Human clitoral development examined using the above techniques plus scanning electron microscopy and optical projection tomography (gestation weeks 8 to 19).

Main Results:

The adult mouse clitoris is an internal, U-shaped structure formed by regression of the preputial lamina, distinct from the prepuce.
The mouse clitoris is estrogen-non-responsive, unlike the vaginal epithelium.
The human clitoris is externally similar to the penis, derived from the genital tubercle.

Conclusions:

Mouse and human clitoral morphology and developmental pathways are virtually non-comparable.
The prominent female mouse perineal appendage is the prepuce, not the clitoris.
This study establishes foundational knowledge for comparative studies of clitoral development.