Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Actor-Observer Effect01:23

Actor-Observer Effect

268
The actor-observer effect, a cognitive bias closely linked to the fundamental attribution error, refers to the tendency for individuals to attribute their behavior to external, situational factors while explaining others’ behavior in terms of internal, dispositional traits. This asymmetry in attribution significantly influences social perception and judgment.Cognitive Mechanisms Behind the EffectTwo primary psychological mechanisms contribute to the actor-observer effect: differences in...
268
Naturalistic Observations02:30

Naturalistic Observations

16.9K
If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways if they know they are being observed. How do researchers obtain accurate information when people tend to hide their natural behavior? As an example, imagine that your professor asks everyone in your class to raise their hand if they always wash their hands after using the restroom. Chances...
16.9K
Steps in the Modeling Process01:14

Steps in the Modeling Process

554
Albert Bandura's theory of observational learning identifies four critical processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement or motivation.
Attention is the first necessary component for observational learning. It involves focusing on what the model is doing and saying. For example, if you decide to take a drawing class to enhance your skills, you need to pay close attention to the instructor's words and hand movements. The characteristics of the model significantly...
554
Observational Learning01:12

Observational Learning

747
Albert Bandura's observational learning, also known as imitation or modeling, occurs when a person observes and imitates another's behavior. It is a quicker process than operant conditioning. A well-known example is the Bobo doll study, where children who saw an adult acting aggressively towards the doll were more likely to act aggressively when left alone, compared to those who observed a nonaggressive adult. Many psychologists view observational learning as a form of latent learning...
747
One-Degree-of-Freedom System01:24

One-Degree-of-Freedom System

741
In mechanical engineering, one-degree-of-freedom systems form the basis of a wide range of electrical and mechanical components. Using these models, engineers can predict the behavior of various parts in a larger system, which gives them insight into how different forces interact with each other.
A one-degree-of-freedom system is defined by an independent variable that determines its state and behavior. One example of a one-degree-of-freedom system is a simple harmonic oscillator, such as a...
741
Observational Studies01:11

Observational Studies

10.6K
Observational studies are a type of analytical study where researchers observe events without any interventions. In other words, the researcher does not influence the response variable or the experiment's outcome.
There are three types of observational studies – Prospective, retrospective, and cross-sectional.
Prospective Study
Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal or cohort studies, are carried out by collecting future data from groups sharing similar characteristics. One...
10.6K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

From Localization to Coordination: Distributed Causality and the Emergence of Biological Function in the Brain and Plant Systems.

Biology·2026
Same author

Response to Shala: Temporal predictability of pain shapes motor system inhibition.

Pain·2026
Same author

The role of outcome affective value in driving human Pavlovian learning.

Journal of experimental psychology. Animal learning and cognition·2026
Same author

Preliminary evidence of kinematic overlap in posed, but not spontaneous, facial expressions of fear and surprise.

Scientific reports·2026
Same author

Predictive encoding of pain location in the motor system indexed by somatomotor alpha and corticospinal excitability.

NeuroImage·2026
Same author

Kicking the mental number line: a kinematic investigation of numerical processing in childhood.

Frontiers in psychology·2026
Same journal

The causal efficacy of consciousness: a neuroscientific analysis and explanation.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Temporal-oscillatory entrainment: a multi-timescale framework for rhythmic coordination from neural to social frequencies.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Role of AQP4 in ameliorating heat stress-induced cellular injury in a cell line model through active heat acclimation.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
Same journal

Correction: Cognitive state monitoring for neuroadaptive information visualization.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
Same journal

The synthetic self-hypothesis: dopaminergic redirection through self-face recognition in stuttering therapy.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
Same journal

A randomised, placebo-controlled, triple-blind clinical trial to investigate the efficacy of <i>Ginkgo biloba</i> extract EGb 761<sup>®</sup> in cognitive impairment associated with post COVID-19 syndrome-the EGb COCOS protocol.

Frontiers in human neuroscience·2026
See all related articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 28, 2025

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation
12:33

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation

Published on: December 31, 2013

9.3K

Action Observation and Effector Independency.

Sonia Betti1, Marie Deceuninck2, Luisa Sartori1

  • 1Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
|February 11, 2020
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Observing actions like grasping activates the specific muscles typically used for that action, regardless of the body part performing it. This suggests motor activations during action observation are effector-specific, even for generalized motor programs.

Keywords:
action execution-action observationcorticospinal excitabilityeffector-independencymotor evoked potentialsmotor resonancetranscranial magnetic stimulation

More Related Videos

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance
07:19

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Published on: March 19, 2020

6.2K
Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior
09:49

Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior

Published on: April 16, 2014

26.7K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Dec 28, 2025

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation
12:33

Corticospinal Excitability Modulation During Action Observation

Published on: December 31, 2013

9.3K
A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance
07:19

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Published on: March 19, 2020

6.2K
Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior
09:49

Methods to Explore the Influence of Top-down Visual Processes on Motor Behavior

Published on: April 16, 2014

26.7K

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Motor Control
  • Cognitive Science

Background:

  • Generalized motor programs suggest abstract representations guide movements across effectors.
  • Research has explored effector independence in action execution but less in action observation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate effector independence in action observation.
  • To determine if observing actions performed by different body parts influences corticospinal excitability (CSE) in hand muscles.

Main Methods:

  • Assessed CSE of right hand muscles (FDI, ADM) using single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS).
  • Participants observed grasping actions performed by the hand, foot, mouth, elbow, or knee.

Main Results:

  • Observing grasping actions activated the hand muscles, the typical effector for grasping.
  • Motor activations during action observation were specific to the muscles usually employed for the observed action, even when performed by other body parts.

Conclusions:

  • Action observation, specifically grasping, recruits the primary effector muscles.
  • Findings suggest effector-specific motor coding in action observation, challenging purely abstract representations for all actions.