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Related Concept Videos

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways01:22

Photoreceptors and Visual Pathways

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At the molecular level, visual signals trigger transformations in photopigment molecules, resulting in changes in the photoreceptor cell's membrane potential. The photon's energy level is denoted by its wavelength, with each specific wavelength of visible light associated with a distinct color. The spectral range of visible light, classified as electromagnetic radiation, spans from 380 to 720 nm. Electromagnetic radiation wavelengths exceeding 720 nm fall under the infrared category,...
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Most organisms use photoreceptors to sense and respond to light. Examples of photoreceptors include bacteriorhodopsins and bacteriophytochromes in some bacteria, phytochromes in plants, and rhodopsins in the photoreceptor cells of the vertebral retina. The light-sensitive property of these receptors is because of the bound chromophores, such as bilin in the phytochromes and retinal in the rhodopsins.
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The Retina01:32

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The retina is a layer of nervous tissue at the back of the eye that transduces light into neural signals. This process, called phototransduction, is carried out by rod and cone photoreceptor cells in the back of the retina.
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The eye is a spherical, hollow structure composed of three tissue layers. The outer layer — the fibrous tunic, comprises the sclera — a white structure — and the cornea, which is transparent. The sclera encompasses some of the ocular surface, most of which is not visible. However, the 'white of the eye' is distinctively visible in humans compared to other species. The cornea, a clear covering at the front of the eye, enables light penetration. The eye's middle...
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The pineal gland, a diminutive endocrine structure named for its pinecone-shaped appearance, is situated atop the third ventricle within the diencephalon region of the forebrain. This gland, composed of secretory cells known as pinealocytes arranged in compact cords and clusters around dense particles of calcium salts, plays a pivotal role in hormonal regulation.
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Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 26, 2025

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits
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Melanopsin: From a small molecule to brain functions.

Mariusz Duda1, Aleksandra Domagalik2, Patrycja Orlowska-Feuer3

  • 1Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology (MCB), Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland; Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Krakow, Poland.

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
|March 17, 2020
PubMed
Summary

Melanopsin, a retinal photopigment, regulates circadian rhythms and cognitive functions. Further research is needed to understand how this single protein mediates diverse biological roles.

Keywords:
Blue lightCircadian rhythmIntrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cellsLateral geniculate complexMelanopsinNon-image forming pathwayPupillary light reflexsuperior colliculus

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Ophthalmology
  • Chronobiology

Background:

  • Melanopsin, a G protein-coupled receptor in retinal ganglion cells, is crucial for non-image-forming visual functions.
  • These functions include hormone secretion, circadian rhythm entrainment, and cognitive/affective processes.
  • Diffuse neural projections suggest specialized roles for different melanopsin-containing cells.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current knowledge on melanopsin's properties and functions.
  • To explore its role in both image and non-image forming visual processes.
  • To discuss its impact on cognitive and affective functioning in humans and animals.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of existing research on melanopsin.
  • Synthesis of data on photophysics, photochemistry, and cell signaling.
  • Analysis of morphological and physiological studies.

Main Results:

  • Melanopsin's involvement in a wide array of biological functions is supported by extensive research.
  • Its complex projection patterns indicate diverse neural pathways mediating its effects.
  • Significant insights have been gained into the melanopsin system's functions.

Conclusions:

  • Melanopsin is a key regulator of non-image-forming visual functions and influences cognition/affect.
  • The precise mechanisms by which melanopsin mediates such diverse functions remain an open question.
  • Further investigation into its activation mechanisms and cell-specific roles is warranted.