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Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions (attractive or repulsive) between charged species (permanent, partial, or temporary charges) and exist with varying strengths between ions, polar, nonpolar, and neutral molecules. The different types of intermolecular forces are ion–dipole, dipole–dipole, hydrogen bonds, and dispersion; among these, dipole–dipole, hydrogen...
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Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same type, such as water molecules. Water molecules have an overall neutral charge but are polar molecule. An oxygen atom in one water molecule has a partial negative charge that can bind to a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge in a second water molecule, forming a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule can form up to four hydrogen bonds with other water molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for water's cohesive nature.
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Updated: Dec 18, 2025

Time-lapse Imaging of Bacterial Swarms and the Collective Stress Response
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Insect swarms can be bound together by repulsive forces.

A M Reynolds1

  • 1Rothamsted Research, AL5 2JQ, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, UK. andy.reynolds@rothamsted.ac.uk.

The European Physical Journal. E, Soft Matter
|June 20, 2020
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Insect swarms can be held together by repulsive forces, not just attractive ones. This occurs when insect speeds vary, similar to dark energy counteracting gravity in cosmic systems.

Keywords:
Living systems: Biological Matter

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Area of Science:

  • Collective behavior
  • Animal physics
  • Insect dynamics

Background:

  • Insect swarm cohesion is typically explained by attractive forces between individuals.
  • Previous models assumed homogeneous velocity distributions within swarms.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the role of heterogeneous velocity statistics in insect swarm cohesion.
  • To explore the existence of repulsive forces in insect swarms.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of laboratory swarms of Chironomus riparius midges.
  • Observation of swarm dynamics under homogeneous and heterogeneous velocity conditions.
  • Investigation of turbophoresis as a mechanism for individual migration.

Main Results:

  • Insect swarms can be bound by centrally repulsive forces when velocity statistics are heterogeneous.
  • Turbophoresis, driven by decreasing kinetic energy, contributes to outward migration.
  • Homogeneous swarms rely on inward acceleration to counteract diffusion.

Conclusions:

  • Heterogeneous velocities can generate repulsive forces in insect swarms, analogous to dark energy.
  • Insect swarms exhibit similarities to self-gravitating systems.
  • Individuals minimize flight instability by reducing the impact of jerks.