Dietary advanced glycation end-products: Perspectives linking food processing with health implications

Dietary advanced glycation end products (dAGEs) are complex and heterogeneous compounds derived from nonenzymatic glycation reactions during industrial processing and home cooking. There is mounting evidence showing that dAGEs are closely associated with various chronic diseases, where the absorbed dAGEs fuel the biological AGEs pool to exhibit noxious effects on human health. Currently, due to the uncertain bioavailability and rapid renal clearance of dAGEs, the relationship between dAGEs and biological AGEs remains debatable. In this review, we provide the most updated information on dAGEs including their generation in processed foods, analytical and characterization techniques, metabolic fates, interaction with AGE receptors, implications on human health and reducing strategies. Available evidence demonstrating a relevance between dAGEs and food allergy is also included. AGEs are ubiquitous in foods and their contents largely depend on the reactivity of carbonyl and amino groups, along with surrounding condition mainly pH and heating procedures. Once being digested and absorbed into the circulation, two separate pathways can be involved in the deleterious effects of dAGEs: an AGE receptor-dependent way to stimulate cell signals, and an AGE receptor-independent way to dysregulate proteins via forming complexes. Inhibition of AGEs formation during food processing and reduction in the diet are two potent approaches to restrict health-hazardous dAGEs. To elucidate the biological role of dAGEs toward human health, the following significant perspectives are raised: molecular size and complexity of dAGEs; interactions between unabsorbed dAGEs and gut microbiota; and roles played by concomitant compounds in the heat-processed foods.