Thymoquinone in autoimmune diseases: Therapeutic potential and molecular mechanisms

Autoimmune diseases (AUDs) are a multifactorial disease, among which rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus and multiple sclerosis are more prevalent. Several anti-inflammatory, biologics, and AUD-modifying drugs are found effective against them, but their repeated use are associated with various adverse effects. In this review article, we have focused on the regulation of inflammatory molecules, molecular signaling pathways, immune cells, and epigenetics by natural product thymoquinone on AUDs. Studies indicate that thymoquinone can regulate inflammatory molecules including interferons, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), oxidative stress, regulatory T cells, and various signaling pathways such as nuclear factor kappa beta (NF-κβ), janus kinase/signal transduction and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) at the molecular level and epigenetic alteration. As these molecules and signaling pathways with defective immune function play an important role in AUD development, controlling these molecules and deregulated molecular mechanism is a significant feature of AUD therapeutics. Interestingly thymoquinone is reported to possess all these potential. This article reviewed the deregulated mechanism of AUDs, and the action of thymoquinone on inflammatory molecules, immune cells, signaling pathways, and epigenetic machinery. Thymoquinone can be regarded as a potential drug candidate for AUD treatment.