Three-dimensional bipedal model with zero-energy-cost walking

We study a three-dimensional articulated rigid-body biped model that possesses zero cost of transport walking gaits. Energy losses are avoided due to the complete elimination of the foot-ground collisions by the concerted oscillatory motion of the model's parts. The model consists of two parts connected via a universal joint. It does not rely on any geometry-altering mechanisms, massless parts, or springs. Despite the model's simplicity, its collisionless gaits feature walking with finite speed, foot clearance, and ground friction. The collisionless spectrum can be studied analytically in the small movement limit, revealing infinitely many periodic modes. The modes differ in the number of sagittal and coronal plane oscillations at different stages of the walking cycle. We focus on the mode with the minimal number of such oscillations, presenting its complete analytical solution. We then numerically evolve it toward a general nonsmall movement solution. A general collisionless mode can be tuned by adjusting a single model parameter. Some of the presented results display a surprising degree of generality and universality.