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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 22, 2026

Three-dimensional Optical-resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy

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Published on: May 3, 2011

Custom-Technology Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Linear Detector Array for Underwater Depth Imaging.

Aurora Maccarone¹, Giulia Acconcia², Ulrich Steinlehner¹

¹Institute of Photonics and Quantum Sciences, School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, UK.

Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)

|July 24, 2021

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

We developed a novel optical depth imaging system for challenging underwater conditions. This system uses single-photon counting to achieve depth imaging through significant scattering, enabling new underwater exploration capabilities.

Keywords:

3D imaging LIDAR SPAD TCSPC custom technology single-photon underwater imaging

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Area of Science:

Optical Engineering
Photonics
Underwater Imaging

Background:

Underwater environments present significant scattering challenges for optical imaging.
Traditional imaging systems struggle to penetrate turbid water, limiting depth perception and spatial resolution.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop and demonstrate an optical depth imaging system for highly scattering underwater environments.
To evaluate the system's performance in terms of depth and spatial resolution under varying scattering conditions.

Main Methods:

Utilized time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) and time-of-flight for depth profiling.
Employed a bi-static transceiver with a 670 nm pulsed laser diode and a 16x1 array of silicon single-photon avalanche diode (Si-SPAD) detectors.
Incorporated cylindrical lenses for light collection and imaging onto the Si-SPAD sensor array.

Main Results:

Successfully demonstrated single-photon depth imaging at a range of 1.65 meters in laboratory conditions.
Achieved imaging through scattering equivalent to 8.3 attenuation lengths using average optical powers up to 15 mW.
Investigated the depth and spatial resolution characteristics of the sensor in diverse scattering scenarios.

Conclusions:

The developed optical depth imaging system is effective in highly scattering underwater environments.
The system shows promise for enhanced underwater exploration and sensing applications.
Further investigation into depth and spatial resolution is crucial for optimizing performance in real-world conditions.